《Crowns of Conquests》
Crowns of Conquests
The ethnic minorities who ventured into China during the Wei and Jin periods found themselves engulfed in an abyss of despair. For some, the role of tenant thrust upon them, toiling under the watchful gaze of Han Chinese landlords. Others faced an even bleaker fate, as they were shackled by the chains of slavery, traded as commodities by the very Han elites tasked with governance.
The War of the Eight Princes painted an even darker tableau upon their lives. Against the backdrop of a famine ravaging Shanxi during the war, a gripping example emerged. Sima Teng, the Inspector of Bingzhou, found himself driven to desperate measures to satiate his hunger for military supplies. He turned to coercion, ensnaring the Xiongnu people within his ruthless clutches. These unfortunate captives were chained together and sold to distant regions like Shandong and Hebei.
Within the hearts of these ethnic minorities, anguish has been etched deeply, fueling the fires of resentment toward their ruling Han overlords. Their suffering embodied a double-edged blade, slicing through the fabric of society along both class and ethnic lines.
During the resistance against the oppressive yoke of the Western Jin dynasty, the Han Chinese people found themselves forging alliances with these ethnic minorities, united by a common quest for progress and justice. This grand tapestry of struggle encompassed not just their class aspirations, but also their national ones.
Yet, as the movement gained momentum and leadership began to fall into the hands of tribal chieftains, a disheartening shift took hold. Motivated by their own desires for dominance and the subjugation of those from different ethnic backgrounds, these chieftains sparked a flame of retaliation within their own people, leading to brutal acts against the Han Chinese population. The once-noble cause was dragged down into the depths of racial conflict, wrapping its tendrils around the attitudes and actions of the general populace. Even those who initially lacked conflicts among themselves were now entangled in a web of mutual animosity. As a result, the struggle took a step backward, veering away from its initial progressive ideals. The scourge of ethnic clashes grew in intensity, particularly during the tumultuous period surrounding the fall of the Shi Zhao dynasty, witnessing a surge in bloodshed between various ethnic groups.If you spot this tale on Amazon, know that it has been stolen. Report the violation.
As the tribal chieftains ascended to power, they manipulated the brewing tensions between ethnic groups, harnessing these conflicts to solidify their own rule. A symbiotic relationship emerged between them and local aristocratic families in the Central Plains, driven by shared class interests. Their collaboration served as a mechanism that perpetuated the suppression of the Han Chinese population. It not only validated but expanded the political and economic privileges of the aristocracy, solidifying their hold on power. Thus, a distinct convergence occurred, melding the ruling classes of both the ethnic minorities and the Han into a single, exploitative force, with the Han Chinese bearing the brunt of their greed. This dynamic reaches its apex during the period encompassing Shi Zhao''s reign through the establishment of the capital at Pingcheng during Northern Wei, where the merging of interests took on an even more pronounced character.
However, amidst the rise of ethnic minority aristocracies, the resistance and perseverance of the Han Chinese people remained unwavering. As various ethnic minorities spread further into the heartland, some of their elite members bore witness to the downfall of their once-mighty ruling regimes. Returning to their original homelands proved to be a daunting task, as these rulers found themselves stripped of their dominions and forced to bow down to a new order. Even for powerful tribes like the Xianbei Tuoba clan, whose political influence held firm for a time, the pervasive sway of the Central Plains'' economy and culture led to an intensifying feudal society and the emergence of stark class divisions. Those who partook in the resistance movement no longer limited to the Han Chinese populace alone. Individuals from diverse ethnic backgrounds joined forces to challenge the ruling classes and nurture a growing sense of solidarity and shared aspirations.
As a result, ethnic barriers began to crumble, paving the way for a profound assimilation of different ethnicities. This transformative process unfolded primarily in the later years of the Northern Wei dynasty through the early years of the Sui dynasty. By the time peasant uprisings erupted towards the end of the Sui dynasty, ethnic conflicts had taken a backseat, allowing for a predominantly class-based struggle to take center stage.[i]
[i] See Changshou, Ma, The Northern Di and Xiongnu; Changru, Tang, The Nature of Rebellions by Various Ethnic Groups in the Northern Frontier During the Jin Period and the Rule of the Five Barbarians Regimes in China, as included in the collection of essays titled Discussions on the History of Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties.
I. Rise and Ruin: The Xiongnu and Jie Kingdoms
The Rise of the Xiongnu Liu Dynasty
As ethnic minorities flocked to the Central Plains, they faced a harsh reality of enslavement and oppression under the ruling Western Jin dynasty. Yet, their spirit endured, fueled by an unwavering determination to defy their oppressors. In the twilight of the Western Jin regime, aristocrats from these ethnic backgrounds began to shake loose from the dynasty''s grip, forging their own paths towards independence. A pivotal moment unfolded in the Bingzhou[1] region at the outset of the Taikang period. Originally, this area teemed with 59,200 registered households of Han Chinese residents. As the Yongjia period (307-312) dawned, the majority were exiled to the southern regions, leaving behind a mere 20,000 households. The balance of power tipped, leaving the Han people at a conspicuous disadvantage compared to the ethnic minority factions. Guided by their chieftain, Liu Yuan, the Xiongnu people achieved a remarkable feat: the establishment of their own political order in the Fen River Basin.
Liu Yuan, hailing from a prestigious lineage of Xiongnu leaders, held key positions throughout his life in Jin court. His grandfather, Yufuluo, served as the esteemed Southern Xiongnu Chanyu, while his father, Bao, was known as the Wise Prince of the Left. After the Xiongnu chieftains surrendered to the Han dynasty, Liu Yuan''s family, considering themselves descendants of the Han dynasty, adopted the imperial surname Liu.[i]
During Emperor Wu of Jins reign, Liu Yuan served as the Commander of the Northern Region. Amidst the chaos of the Eight Princes, Sima Ying, the Prince of Chengdu, sought Liu Yuan''s aid. He was sent back to Bingzhou to rally the five Xiongnu tribes for the civil war. This endeavor led to his appointment as the Northern Chanyu. Upon his arrival in Zuoguo City, Liu Yuan was unanimously proclaimed as the Grand Chanyu by Xiongnu nobles. In 304, he changed his title to King of Han and established Zuoguo City[2] as his capital. He further proclaimed himself Emperor in 308, establishing the capital at Pingyang[3] and adopted the state name "Han."
A formidable coalition soon united behind Liu Yuan''s banner. Wang Mi and Cao Yi, having marshaled their troops in Qing and Xu, merged their forces with Ji Sang and Shi Le, who had mustered armies in Zhao and Wei. Adding to this tide of support, Lu Zhuyan, representing the four Xianbei tribes in Shangjun, and Shan Zhen, a Di chieftain, pledged their loyalty to Liu Yuan.
With this newfound alliance, Liu Yuan appointed Wang Mi as the Governor of Qing and Xu provinces, unleashing a wave of military expeditions across Qing, Xu, Yan, and Yu. Wang Mi''s campaigns bore fruit, as he swiftly secured numerous counties along his path, even menacing the stronghold of Xuchang, a pivotal gateway to the Western Jin capital of Luoyang. With Luoyang cowering in trepidation, its gates would remain tightly shut throughout daylight hours.
Meanwhile, Shi Le embarked on military campaigns throughout regions like Weijun[4], Jijun[5], and Dunqiu[6]. With an army of 30,000 soldiers, he swiftly conquered over 50 fortresses, appointing their leaders as his own generals and captains. Adding to his strength, he conscripted 50,000 able-bodied men into his ranks. By the summer of 309, Shi Le''s expansionist efforts had yielded remarkable results, with over a hundred fortresses falling under his control in the northern provinces. With his forces now surpassing 100,000 soldiers, he relentlessly engaged and defeated the Jin army, forcing the surrender of several key fortresses in Hebei and obtaining valuable hostages.
In the same year, Liu Yuan sent his generals to capture Liyang[7], defeated the Jin general Wang Zhan at Yanjin[8], and drowned over 30,000 men and women in the Yellow River. Following these victories, Liu Yuan''s son, Liu Cong, led a renewed siege on the city of Luoyang.
In 310, after the death of Liu Yuan, the reins of power fell to his eldest son, Liu He. However, his rule was abruptly cut short by his younger brother, Liu Cong, who seized control by resorting to fratricide. Cong wasted no time in sending his cousin, Liu Yao, and general Wang Mi, along with a force of 40,000 soldiers, to venture out of Luoyang. With strategic finesse, they maneuvered through the realms of Liang, Chen, Ru, and Ying, capturing over 100 fortresses. They succeeded in isolating Luoyang through these campaigns.Reading on this site? This novel is published elsewhere. Support the author by seeking out the original.
In 311, Shi Le achieved a decisive victory at Ningping City[9] in Ku County[10], annihilated the main forces of Western Jin that numbered over 100,000 soldiers. In that summer, Liu Yao and Wang Mi captured Luoyang and took Emperor Huai captive. Fast forward to 316, and Liu Yao managed to seize Chang''an and Emperor Min. This turn of events eventually spelled the downfall of the Western Jin dynasty.
[1] Present-day Shanxi.
[2] Present-day northern Lishi, Shanxi.
[3] Northwest of present-day Linfen, Shanxi.
[4] With its capital at Ye.
[5] With its capital at Ji, now southwest of Ji County, Henan.
[6] With its capital at Dunqiu, now southwest of Qingfeng, Henan.
[7] Now northeast of Jun County, Henan.
[8] Now north of Yanjin, Henan.
[9] Now 35 li northeast of Dan City, Henan.
[10] Present-day Luyi, Henan.
[i] In Records of Liu Yuanhai (JS101):
"In the first year of Yongxing, Yuanhai [...] ascended the throne of King of Han and issued an order, saying: ''In the past, our Taizu Emperor Gao, with his martial spirit, established a great foundation. Taizong Emperor Xiao Wen emphasized virtue and brought peace to the Han dynasty. Shizong Emperor Xiao Wu expanded the territory and subdued the barbarian tribes, surpassing the glory of Tang [Yu]. Zhongzong Emperor Xiao Xuan gathered talented individuals, filling the court. These ancestors of ours surpassed the Three Kings and exceeded the achievements of the Five Emperors [...] However, the reigns of Yuan and Cheng were short-lived, and the reigns of Ai and Ping were short as well. Treacherous ministers like Wang Mang caused chaos and rebellion. Our imperial ancestor Shizu Emperor Guangwu [...] conducted sacrifices to heaven in the Han tradition, not deviating from the old ways [...] Xianzong Emperors Xiao Mming and Suzong Emperor Xiao Zhang carried on the legacy, and the brilliance shone again. However, since the reigns of Emperor He and Emperor An, the imperial principles have gradually declined [...] The Yellow Turbans caused turmoil throughout the Nine Provinces, and eunuchs with wicked intentions spread wide within the Four Seas. Dong Zhuo took advantage of the situation and became rampant, while Cao Cao and his sons committed evil acts one after another. Therefore, Emperor Xiao Min (Emperor Xian, Liu Xie) abandoned the empire, and Emperor Zhaolie (Liu Bei) established a glorious lineage in Min and Shu [...] Since the loss of the ancestral shrines and the decline of the imperial lineage, forty years have passed. Now, Heaven has enticed us to repent for the calamities brought upon the imperial Han. We have witnessed the mutual destruction of the Sima family members. [...] As I have been recommended by the nobles, I will continue the achievements of our three imperial ancestors [...] '' He then pardoned those within his territory and adopted the era name Yuanxi, posthumously honoring Liu Shan as Emperor Xiao Huai. He established ancestral altars for the three founding emperors and the five noble ancestors to be worshipped."
Thus, it can be concluded that when Liu Yuan initially rose in rebellion, he also falsely claimed to be a descendant of the Han dynasty, aiming to deceive the Han people and eliminate ethnic prejudice in order to consolidate his rule. The adoption of the name "Han" for his state was likely due to this historical association.
In Catalog of Metal and Stone Inscriptions (Jin Shi Lu), it is mentioned in the account of the spurious Han Minister of Minister Liu Xiong''s stele: "His given name was Xiong, courtesy name Yuanying, a descendant of Emperor Gao, the grandson of Emperor Xiaoxuan. When Wang Mang usurped the throne, he fled to the border regions and was recognized by foreign countries, thus assuming the title of Chanyu." Xiong was Yuans younger brother. According to the record in Records of Liu Yuanhai (JS101), it states: "In the beginning, Emperor Gaozu of Han married his princess to Modu, forming a brotherly relationship, which is why their descendants adopted the surname Liu." However, this stele explicitly mentions Emperor Xuan, not Liu Yuan''s initial rise to power. Could it be that Liu Yuan used this stele to deceive the masses?
The Decline of the Xiongnu Liu Dynasty
After Liu Cong toppled the Western Jin dynasty, the Central Plains fell under the Xiongnu Han rule. Liu Cong introduced a strategic territorial system, dividing the land into left and right commanderies, tasked with governing over 200,000 households each. This move aimed to establish effective administration. To oversee the Han Chinese population, 43 neishi officials were appointed as provincial administrators.[1] It is worth noting that this territorial organization based on a decimal system had already been present within the Xiongnu tribes. According to Xiongnu Traditions (HS94), from the Wise Kings of Left and Right down to the common households, the larger tribes consisted of over 10,000 cavalrymen, while the smaller ones numbered a few thousand. In total, there were 24 chiefs, collectively known as wanqi or "ten thousand cavalrymen." These chiefs also appointed their own commanders of one thousand, one hundred, and ten, respectively. However, during this period, this organizational structure was primarily focused on military arrangements based on population and did not entail specific territorial demarcations.
To establish a more efficient governance structure, Liu Cong underwent a crucial transformation by adopting a geographical-based administrative system. This the advent of the qianhu (thousand households) and baihu (hundred households) divisions, denoting specific areas under control. The previous military rankings such as wanqi (ten thousand cavalrymen), qianfu (thousand men), baifu (hundred men) and shifu (ten men) were reimagined as local administrative officials with judicial and financial powers.
Besides the creation of the left and right commanderies to oversee the Han Chinese population under the authority of the Grand Chanyu, there were also left and right assistants in charge of the liuyi, or the "six barbarian tribes." Each of these tribe was roughly composed of ten thousand settlements, and one military commissar was appointed for every ten thousand[2]. The term liuyi encompassed the Hu (Xiongnu), Jie, Xianbei, Di, Qiang, and Ba-Di (although some sources exclude the Ba-Di). It is estimated that the Xiongnu dynasty had a total population of approximately three to four million during this period.
Within the Xiongnu dynasty, a distinctive system of governance was introduced, dividing administrative power between the Xiongnu and the Han. The Grand Chanyu, who functioned as a de facto vice king, played a pivotal role in this arrangement.
Prior to his death, Liu Yuan appointed his fourth son Liu Cong as the Grand Commander and Grand Chanyu, with authority over the Ministry of Personnel, and established the Chanyu Office in west Pingyang. Liu Cong commanded a military force of over 100,000 men. Upon Liu Cong''s coronation, he bestowed the title of Crown Prince upon his younger brother, Ai. However, it was his own son, Liu Can, who held an iron grip on power, simultaneously taking on the roles of Prime Minister, Grand Chanyu, and Chief Councilor. This accumulation of titles effectively positioned Liu Can as the de facto vice king, overshadowing his uncle Ai. Furthermore, in the Guanzhong region, Liu Yao appointed his son, Prince Liu Yin of Nanyang, as Grand Commander and Grand Chanyu. He established the Chanyu Office in Wei City[3] and appointed nobles from Hu, Jie, Xianbei, Di, and Qiang to serve as the Left and Right Wise Kings, among other positions. This exemplifies the Xiongnu dynasty''s approach to governance, as they implemented a policy of divided rule between the Xiongnu and Han.
Despite Liu Cong''s nominal rule over the Central Plains, the persistent military conflicts gave rise to the rapid emergence of local separatist forces. In 311, Shi Le annexed Wang Mi by force, driven by his desire to expand his dominion over Zhao and Wei.[4] Following suit, in 315, Wang Mi''s general Cao Yi captured over forty fortresses in the regions between Qi and Lu. As his forces grew to over 100,000, Cao Yi harbored ambitions of controlling the entire region of Qi.[5] Furthermore, the Xianbei forces gradually expanded their influence southward, spreading across the territories between Yan and Dai.
Liu Cong''s rule was confined to a small portion of Shanxi province, while Liu Kun maintained control over the majority of the region. Furthermore, Liu Cong held sway over a portion of the Guanzhong area, where Liu Yao had established his base. Geographically, his territory "did not extend beyond Taihang Mountains in the east, the Song and Luo Rivers in the south, the Long and Chi Mountains in the west, and Fen and Jin Rivers in the north."[6]
Liu Cong''s notorious penchant for alcohol and debauchery, coupled with the Xiongnu tribes'' own corrupt and lavish ways of life, fostered a state of excessive opulence. Unfortunately, the incessant warfare that ravaged the region wreaked havoc on agricultural production, causing artificial famines to ensue. The city of Pingyang, Liu Cong''s capital, suffered a harrowing famine that brought forth a cataclysmic toll on its inhabitants. Historical records indicate that a staggering half of the citys population - roughly five to six out of every ten people - either perished or fled.[7] Around 200,000 households in the Commandery of Sili embarked on an exodus, seeking refuge within the territory controlled by Shi Le. Not only that, but over 30,000 horsemen from the Commandery of Right Sili, along with their families, fled to the guerrilla zones of the Eastern Jin. These events serve as a stark glimpse into the intensifying and urgent class conflict brewing within the Xiongnu domain.
In 318, after the passing of Liu Cong, the crown prince Liu Can ascended to the throne. Regrettably, this transition of power was overshadowed by a tragic incident: Liu Can fell victim to an assassination carried out by a Xiongnu nobleman named Jin Zhun. In a ruthless act, Zhun orchestrated a massacre of all members of the Liu clan in Pingyang. Exploiting this chaos, he declared himself the Heavenly King of Han.
Upon receiving the news of the coup dtat, Liu Cong''s cousin, Liu Yao, who was residing in Chang''an, took decisive action. He proclaimed himself Emperor and mobilized his troops towards Pingyang. In a resounding victory, Liu Yao''s forces successfully crushed the Jin clan, effectively eradicating them. Subsequently, Liu Yao relocated the capital to Chang''an and renamed the state as Zhao.[8] As the power dynamics shifted, the regions east of Pingyang and Luoyang fell under the control of Shi Le. This development further shaped the political landscape of the time, as the power balance between the newly established Former Zhao state and Shi Le''s domain (known as Later Zhao) began to take form.
In the subsequent years, the Guanzhong region was struck by a devastating epidemic that resulted in a staggering death toll, claiming the lives of three to four out of every ten individuals.[i] This catastrophic event prompted Liu Yao to repopulate the city of Chang''an. To accomplish this task, Liu Yao orchestrated the relocation of over 200,000 households belonging to the Di and Qiang tribes from Shangjun. He also facilitated the migration of more than 10,000 households from the Longyou region. In a notable move, he relocated over 10,000 households from the esteemed Yang and Jiang clans of Qinzhou to Chang''an.
During the zenith of his rule, Liu Yao commanded an impressive army of 285,000 soldiers. When his troops marched out, "their formations stretched along the river for over a hundred li. The resounding sound of drums and bells reverberated, shaking the earth and river in a manner unparalleled in the annals of military history."[9] Such a formidable display of military might ensure the submission of all the Di and Qiang tribes in the Guanzhong region under his rule.
In 325, Liu Yao issued a command for his cousin, Prince Liu Yue of Zhongshan, to lead a force of 15,000 soldiers in a siege of the Later Zhao general, Shi Sheng, in the Jinyong City of Luoyang. In response, Shi Le dispatched his cousin, Shi Hu, at the head of an army consisting of 40,000 infantry and cavalry troops to rescue Shi Sheng. The clash between Liu Yue and Shi Hu took place on the western bank of the Luo River. Liu Yue''s troops were defeated and forced to retreat to the Shiliang Garrison on the northern bank of the Luo River. Seizing the advantage, Shi Hu proceeded to lay siege to Shiliang, cutting off its supply lines. This dire situation led to a state of desperation within Liu Yue''s ranks, with his soldiers resorting to the drastic measure of killing horses for sustenance.If you encounter this story on Amazon, note that it''s taken without permission from the author. Report it.
To salvage the situation, Liu Yao personally led a sizeable army to rescue Liu Yue and stationed them in Jingu.[10] However, during the night, an inexplicable disturbance erupted from within Liu Yao''s own forces, causing chaos and the subsequent dispersal of his soldiers. Forced to retreat, Liu Yao''s army fell back to Mianchi.[11] The disturbances recurred during the night, which led Liu Yao to ultimately withdraw to Chang''an. Shortly after, Shi Hu captured the Shiliang Garrison and took Liu Yue alive, along with his generals and over eighty officials. More than 3,000 Di and Qiang people were also taken captive. Shi Hu ordered the execution 9,000 soldiers. This incident exemplifies the lack of discipline and fighting spirit within Liu Yao''s army, as revealed by the inexplicable disturbances and subsequent disarray that plagued their ranks during nighttime.
In 328, Shi Le issued an order for Shi Hu to lead a force of 40,000 soldiers in a western campaign from Zhi Pass,[12] with the intent to attack Puban.[13] Meanwhile, Liu Yao took personal command of elite forces by land and water from Tong Pass to provide reinforcements. Shi Hu was forced to retreat, and Liu Yao pursued him all the way to Gaohouyuan,[14] where a major defeat was inflicted upon Shi Hu. The battlefield was left strewn with the corpses of fallen soldiers stretching over 200 li, and a great number of spoils were captured.[15] Shi Hu managed to escape to Zhaoge,[16] while Liu Yao proceeded to cross the Dayang Pass[17] and lay siege to Shi Sheng in the Jinyong City of Luoyang. The subsequent surrender of Yin Ju, the Administrator of Xingyang,[18] and Zhang Jin, the Administrator of Yewang,[19] sent shockwaves through the capital of the Later Zhao, Xiangguo.
Recognizing the gravity of the situation, Shi Le believed that if Luoyang were to fall into Liu Yao''s hands, his next move would likely be an invasion of Hebei. He found it necessary to dispatch troops to rescue Luoyang. He made three strategic assessments of Liu Yao''s military actions: "If Liu Yao gathers his forces at Chenggao Pass,[20] it would be the best scenario for him. If he blocks the Luo River,[21] it would be the second-best scenario. If he remains stationary and defends Luoyang, it would be equivalent to being captured."[22] In the 12th Month, Shi Le assembled a force of 60,000 infantry and 27,000 cavalries at Chenggao. They crossed the Luo River from Gong County and advanced to the outskirts of Luoyang.
Upon learning of Shi Le''s personal involvement in the defense of Luoyang, Liu Yao swiftly withdrew his troops from the siege of Jinyong City. He strategically positioned his massive army, consisting of more than 100,000 soldiers, to the west of Luoyang, spanning 10 li from north to south. In response, Shi Le led a force of 40,000 infantry and cavalry into Luoyang. On the decisive day of battle, the Later Zhao forces outside the city executed Shi Hu''s strategic plan. 30,000 infantries moved from the north of Luoyang towards the west to attack Liu Yao''s center. Simultaneously, Shi Kan and Shi Cong led 8,000 cavalry each, advancing from the west of Luoyang towards the north to strike Liu Yao''s vanguard. The clash between the two armies took place outside Xuanyang Gate.[23]
During the battle, Shi Le personally commanded the main forces of the Later Zhao army, encircling Liu Yao''s troops as they emerged from Changhe Gate.[24] It is worth noting that Liu Yao, like many Xiongnu nobles, had a penchant for alcohol. On this fateful day, he arrived at the battle inebriated after consuming a considerable amount of alcohol. As described in historical accounts, "From a young age, he indulged in alcohol, and in his later years, it became even worse. When Le arrived, Yao prepared for battle while drinking several dou of alcohol [...] By the time he went out, he drank over a dou of alcohol again."[25] By the time they reached Xiyang Gate, Liu Yao was heavily intoxicated and unable to engage in combat.
The Later Zhao army capitalized on the opportunity and launched a surprise attack. The Former Zhao forces began to crumble under the onslaught. In a hasty retreat, Liu Yao, in his drunken state, lost control and tumbled into a ditch. Thereupon, he found himself sprawled on the icy ground, enduring more than ten wounds. This unfortunate turn of events led to his capture by Shi Kan. The resounding victory belonged to Shi Le, as over 50,000 enemy soldiers fell by the blade.
Liu Yao''s defeat marked the beginning of a tragic downfall. His reign abruptly ended with his execution. His sons, such as Liu Xi, Liu Yin, and others, abandoned Chang''an and sought refuge in Shanggui.[26]
Yet, their sanctuary was short-lived. In the subsequent year of 329, during the 9th Month, the Later Zhao forces captured Shanggui. This assault claimed the life of Crown Prince Xi, along with the loss of over 3,000 princes, dukes, officials, and lower-ranking officers.
In Luoyang, princes, dukes, officials, literati, and even refugees fell victim to a sweeping purge, with over 5,000 lives extinguished. No one was spared, not even prominent clans. The conquerors displaced over 9,000 souls to the confines of Xiangguo.
With these momentous events, the Former Zhao dynasty came to an end. Spanning from Liu Yuan''s rise as the King of Han to the downfall of Liu Xi, this kingdom persisted for twenty-six years. (304-329).
[1] Records of Liu Cong, JS102
[2] Ibid.
[3] Now Xianyang, Shaanxi.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Zuyu, Gu, Essential Records of History and Geography (ʷҪ)
[7] Records of Liu Cong, JS102
[8] The state renamed to Zhao by Liu Yao is referred to as Former Zhao in historical records to distinguish it from Shi Les Later Zhao state.
[9] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[10] Now northwest of Luoyang, Henan.
[11] Now west of Mianchi, Henan.
[12] 15 li northwest of Jiyuan, Henan.
[13] Now Puzhou Town, Yongji, Shanxi.
[14] Now north of Wenxi, Shanxi.
[15] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[16] Now Qi County, Henan.
[17] Now Maojindu, Pinglu, Henan.
[18] With its capital at Xingyang, now northwest of Zhengzhou, Henan.
[19] With its capital at Yewang, now Qinyang, Henan.
[20] Now northwest of Xingyang, Henan.
[21] Now Gongyi''s section of the Luo River.
[22] 3rd Year of Xianhe of Emperor Cheng of Jin, ZZTJ
[23] The first gate on the south side of the western area of Luoyang.
[24] The northern gate on the western side of Luoyang.
[25] Records of Liu Yao, JS103
[26] Now Tianshui, Gansu.
[i] In Biography of Liu Yao (JS103):
In the 3rd year [of Taixing] (320 CE), [...] [Liu] Yue, the Prince of Guangping, was appointed as the Grand General for Conquering the East and stationed in Luoyang. However, there was a severe epidemic among the three armies [...] [In the 1st year of Yongchang] (322 CE), [Liu] Yao launched an attack on Qiuchi [...] with the simultaneous outbreak of a severe epidemic (as recorded in ZZTJ as "a major epidemic in the army") [...] The epidemic spread widely, resulting in the deaths of three to four out of ten people.
The Rise of Later Zhao
The Rise of Later Zhao
Shi Le was a Jie tribesman of the Qiangqu lineage, which was one of the 19 tribes that migrated to the frontier regions with the Xiongnu. His people separated from the Xiongnu by their distinct physical features such as high noses, deep-set eyes, and beards, and devotion to the Zoroastrian faith.[i] According to certain later sources, there are indications of the existence of two intriguing states. The Zheshe State is mentioned in the Book of Wei, while the Shi State, deriving its name from "stone," is referenced in the Book of Sui. These states are said to have occupied the vicinity of Zhezhe, which corresponds to the modern-day city of Tashkent. Shi Le may have had ancestral ties to the Shi State, perhaps inspiring his family to migrate to the Central Plains and adopt "Shi" as their surname. Shi Le''s father and grandfather held lower-ranking chieftain positions within their tribe.
Shi Le''s birthplace can be traced to Wuxiang County, Shangdang.[1] At the age of fourteen, he accompanied his tribemen on a trading journey to Luoyang but soon returned home engage in agricultural work. During the later years of Emperor Hui''s reign, Shanxi province was stricken by a devastating famine. In response, Sima Teng, the Inspector of Bingzhou and Duke of Dongying, resorted to capturing and selling Hu people as slaves in Shandong and Hebei to acquire military provisions. To ensure their confinement, two Hu people were chained together. It was during this period that Shi Le, then in his twenties, found himself among the captives. The arduous journey from Shanxi to Hebei and Shandong subjected Shi Le to the constant perils of starvation and disease. Ultimately, he was sold to the Shi Huan family in Chiping,[2] where he initially served as a farming slave. However, Shi Huan soon released him, granting Shi Le the status of a tenant farmer.
In subsequent years, Shi Le demonstrated his leadership abilities by assembling a small band of eight men, including Wang Yang, which they named the "Cavalry Thieves." Later, they were joined by Guo Ao and nine others, forming a bandit group known as the "Eighteen Riders."[3] Amidst the War of the Eight Princes, the demise of Prince Sima Ying of Chengdu led to the emergence of Gongshi Fan, the prince''s general, who sought vengeance and raised a substantial army from Zhao and Wei. Recognizing the opportunity, Shi Le aligned himself with Gongshi Fan''s forces and joined them in their quest. In due course, Shi Le became one of the trusted generals under the command of Liu Yuan, further expanding his military forces to an impressive size, exceeding 100,000 soldiers.
In 311, Shi Le annihilated the main army of the Western Jin Dynasty led by Prince Sima Yue of Donghai at Ningping City in Ku County. Expanding his influence, he formed alliances with Liu Yao and Wang Mi, eventually capturing Luoyang. In a cunning move, he deceived and assassinated Wang Mi, effectively annexing his forces. With his forces strengthened, Shi Le set his sights on further territorial expansion in the south. He launched military campaigns into the Jiang and Han territories but faced setbacks. However, employing the strategic insights of Zhang Bin, Shi Le successfully established a stronghold in Xiangguo.[4] Of the eight provinces in northeastern Western Jin empire, Shi Le managed to gain control over seven of them.[ii]
By 314, Shi Le assassinated Wang Jun and took over Youzhou, establishing control over a large part of Hebei and Shandong. His military prowess was further exemplified in 316 when he defeated Jin general Liu Kun. In 321, Shi Le dealt a significant blow to his rivals by exterminating the Xianbei clan of Duan. This same year proved crucial for Shi Le''s expansion as he capitalized on the death of Eastern Jin''s Zu Ti, allowing him to gain control over Henan and northern Anhui. The subsequent year, in 323, saw Shi Le''s forces triumph over Cao Yi, resulting in the seizure of Qingzhou. Shi Le''s most impactful conquest came in 329 when he destroyed the Former Zhao dynasty and extended his control over the regions surrounding Guanzhong and Long. Apart from the Murong clan in Liaodong and the Zhang clan in Hexi, Shi Le had successfully unified the entire Central Plains region. At its zenith, the territory of the Shi Zhao dynasty stretched "south to Huai and Hai, east bordering the sea, west to Hexi, and north to Yan and Dai."[5]
In 319, Shi Le declared himself the Grand Chanyu and the King of Zhao and chose Xiangguo as his capital. In 330, he changed his title to the Heavenly King of Great Zhao and carried out imperial affairs. In the same year, he further proclaimed himself Emperor.
In the early stages of Shi Le''s rise, he conducted military campaigns in both the north and south, capturing forts and strongholds and often "levying taxes on grain from righteous sources to provide for his soldiers." However, as he established his base in Xiangguo, he faced food shortages and resorted to "sending his generals to raid and seize wild grains" from the counties of Guangping.[6] In times of severe famine, when crops and even the hair of livestock was devoured by locusts, Shi Le prioritized the sustenance of his army over the welfare of the populace, employing forceful means to confiscate their food. Contemporaries referred to Shi Le''s actions as Hu Huang or "Barbarian Locust".[iii]
However, it is important to consider Shi Le''s background as a former slave who had experienced the hardships of being sold in Shandong. This may have given him some empathy for the struggles faced by the common people. After capturing Ye City around 313, Shi Le began implementing a system of feudal exploitation in the territories under his control, adopting the methods already in place in the Central Plains. He imposed land rents and household taxes on the local population. By 314, after he gained control of Youzhou, Shi Le gradually stabilized the provinces of You and Ji, starting with the counties and cities, and conducted a survey to determine the actual number of households. He established a policy where each household would contribute "2 pieces of silk and 2 hu of grain."[7] This level of exploitation was similar to that implemented by Cao Cao after he established control over North China, which required "4 sheng of land rent per mu, and each household to contribute 2 pieces of silk and 2 jin of cotton."[8] In comparison to the later occupation of land system during Western Jin, where "each adult male was assigned 50 mu of land and had to pay 4 hu of grain rent (8 sheng per mu), 3 pieces of silk, and 3 jin of cotton,"[9] Shi Le''s policy was relatively less burdensome.
During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, conflicts and turmoil plagued the land, resulting in widespread destruction of agricultural production. However, the policies implemented by Shi Le stand out for their commendable efforts to alleviate the burden on the common people. The prevailing Xiongnu nobles, known for their heavy drinking habits, consumed a considerable amount of grain in the process. To address this issue and conserve food resources, Shi Le strictly prohibited the brewing of alcohol within his domain. Historical records reveal that "Shi Le began to restore the people''s livelihoods (referring to agricultural productivity), albeit within the limitations of available resources. Therefore, he strictly enforced the ban on brewing alcohol, where sweet rice wine was exclusively reserved for ancestral sacrifices. This policy remained in effect for several years, dissuading alcohol production among the populace."
After ascending to the throne as the King of Zhao, Shi Le actively sought to revitalize agricultural production by dispatching emissaries to various provinces and counties, encouraging farmers to increase their output. He appointed the Right Palace Attendant, Huo Hao, as the Chief Officer for Encouraging Agriculture and sent officials such as Zhu Biao and Lu Guang as agricultural supervisors to travel through the provinces and counties, verifying household registrations and promoting agricultural production. Notably, outstanding farmers were rewarded with the prestigious title of Wu Dafu (Five Gentlemen).[10] While these measures contributed to some extent in facilitating the recovery of agricultural output, it is important to acknowledge that Shi Le primarily implemented them as a means to consolidate his rule and exploit the population.
Upon assuming power, Shi Le''s actions displayed a strong animosity towards the captured royal officials, courtiers, and aristocrats of Western Jin, leading to their widespread execution. However, he adopted a more accommodating approach towards the prominent families who chose to surrender, gradually integrating them into the political framework of his regime. As Shi Le expanded his influence in Hebei, he converged the local "gentlemen" and organized them into the Gentlemen Camp. He appointed Zhang Bin, a disgruntled Han scholar, as his chief strategist and later as the Grand Director, entrusted with the oversight of government affairs. Amidst the consolidation of his kingdom, Shi Le orchestrated the relocation of over three hundred households comprising court officials, scholars, and noble families from the Western Jin court to The Village of Respecting Benevolence (chongren li) in Xiangguo, where they were appointed as esteemed high-ranking officials.[11] Additionally, he resettled more than three thousand families of influential figures from the provinces of Si and Ji in Xiangguo.[12] To ensure a harmonious coexistence between the Han and Hu ethnic groups, Shi Le issued a decree explicitly stating that the prominent Han families should be treated with respect and not subjected to mistreatment by the Hu people.[13]
Shi Le''s implementation of the Nine-Rank Official System further exemplified his approach to governance. Under his leadership, "he established the five ranks, with Zhang Bin in charge of the selection process. He also reinstated the nine ranks, appointing Zhang Ban as the Left Director of Law and Meng Zhuo as the Right Director of Law, both responsible for selecting and appointing officials." Later on, "he appointed Wang Bo, the Yamen General, as the Chief Clerk in charge of the selection and appointment of officials according to the nine ranks."[14]
Prominent Han aristocratic families from the Central Plains, such as Pei Xian from Hedong[15], Lu Chen from Fanyang[16], Shi Pu from Bohai[17], Fu Chang from Beidi[18], Xun Chuo from Yingchuan[19], Cui Yue from Qinghe[20], Cui Yu[21], and Zheng Lue from Xingyang[22], were among those who held influential positions within the Shi Zhao regime. In a strategic move to solidify his support base, Shi Hu even exempted 17 prominent families from military service in the Guanlong region. This exemption extended to notable families such as the Huangfu, Hu, Liang, Wei of Jingzhao, Du, Niu of Anding, Xin of Longxi. As these prominent families from the Central Plains aligned themselves with the Shi Zhao regime, they took advantage of their positions to exercise authority over both the Han people and various minority groups.The author''s content has been appropriated; report any instances of this story on Amazon.
After capturing Hebei, Shi Le demonstrated his commitment to education by founding the Imperial Academy in Xiangguo. In a bid to groom the next generation of officials, he handpicked talented young individuals, sons of officials and scholars, to become students at the academy. There, these students received comprehensive instruction in the classics from proficient scholars appointed as literary officers.
He further established over ten smaller schools in the surrounding area. These schools included the schools of Propagation of Literature, Propagation of Education, Reverence for Confucianism, and Reverence for Training. They were strategically situated at the four gates of Xiangguo. Over a hundred sons of officials, scholars, and eminent families were carefully chosen as teachers, their duty being to impart knowledge and guide the students towards intellectual excellence. To ensure the safety and security of these educational institutions, guards were employed. These schools in the capital aimed to cultivate literate and military officials for the Shi Zhao regime. At the same time, Shi Le issued a decree mandating that each county establish educational officials. These officials would consist of one Great Scholar and one Libationer, who would be tasked with overseeing the education of 150 disciples.[23] The youths of noble birth would undergo three rounds of examinations. Those who achieved outstanding results would be recommended by their respective counties to serve in either the central or local government.
The Later Zhao dynasty, like the Xiongnu Liu dynasty, implemented a policy of divided governance between Hu and Han peoples. Shi Le appointed Zhi Xiong as the Middle Fortress General and Wang Yang as the Guerrilla General, both serving as Libationers of the Ministry of the Interior, with a specific focus on handling legal disputes among the Hu people. In order to ensure a fair and just administration, Shi Le entrusted the important task of overseeing the affairs of the Hu people and enforcing strict laws to his disciples and chief scribes, Zhang Li, Zhang Liang, and Liu Qun. Their responsibilities extended to preventing any acts of disrespect or mistreatment of prominent Han individuals by the Hu people.
Despite the laws and regulations meant to prevent mistreatment, the Jie people continued to harass the Han people. One incident exemplifying this occurred when Shi Le, noticed his Military Advisor, Fan Tan, looking disheveled. Shi Le exclaimed, "Military Advisor Fan, how impoverished you have become!" Fan Tan honestly confessed, "I suffered at the hands of the Jie bandits and lost all my possessions." "So, the Jie bandits have been plundering and ravaging like this!" Shi Le chuckled and proclaimed, "I will compensate you for your losses." In a generous gesture, he awarded Fan Tan with carriages, horses, clothing, and a substantial sum of 3,000,000 coins.[24]
During this time, the Jie people were known as guoren (national people), while the Han people as zhaoren (Zhao people). It was strictly forbidden for Han people to refer to the Jie people as "Hu". Despite this prohibition, Fan Tan openly violated the rule, yet Shi Le did not reprimand him for his transgression. However, this incident serves as proof that the Jie people regarded themselves to be superior to the Han people, allowing them to plunder the property of Han officials without consequence. Consequently, the Han people were left with no choice but to suffer under their oppressive treatment.
Later Zhao established the position of the Grand Chanyu to govern the Hu and Jie people. Initially, Shi Le held the title of King of Zhao and also served as the Grand Chanyu, while Shi Hu acted as the Chanyu''s chief assistant. However, Shi Le eventually proclaimed himself emperor and appointed his son, Shi Hong (ʯ), as the Crown Prince, and another son, Shi Hong (ʯ), as the Grand Chanyu. However, Shi Hu harbored dissatisfaction because Shi Le did not allow him to hold the prestigious position of Grand Chanyu. The division of governance between the Hu and Han peoples necessitated the establishment of the Grand Chanyu to ensure the pacification of the various barbarian groups. It is plausible that the Chanyu''s headquarters during the reign of the Shi Zhao dynasty was located in Ye City.
Shi Le, despite being illiterate, had a profound fascination for literature and history. He would often engage someone to read history books to him. One incident stands out, where he had the Book of Han read to him and was astounded by Li Yiji''s advice to Emperor Gaozu regarding the establishment of the Six States.
"This approach is destined to fail!"he exclaimed, "How could one possibly achieve dominance over the realm?"
However, his perspective soon shifted upon hearing the wisdom of the Marquis of Zhiliu, Zhang Liang. He recognized the value of this counsel and acknowledged, "It is thanks to this wisdom that success was possible."[25]
This episode showcases Shi Le''s unique perspective on historical events. Drawing on his extensive political experience, he possessed an extraordinary ability to critique the successes and failures of emperors throughout the ages, leaving his listeners in awe. Shi Le held great admiration for Gaozu Emperor Liu Bang of Han, expressing his willingness to serve him and compete with renowned strategists like Han Xin and Peng Yue to prove his capabilities. He pondered the outcome if he had encountered Emperor Guangwu, questioning who would have emerged victorious in their struggle for control over the Central Plains.[26] Shi Le often sought to emulate the actions of Liu Bang in his own reign. Under his rule, the people enjoyed a slightly improved quality of life compared to the tumultuous end of the Western Jin and the Former Zhao Dynasty.
Figure 1 Map of the Later Zhao, 327 CE
[1] Now north of Yushe, Shanxi.
[2] Now west of Chiping, Shandong.
[3] In Records of Shi Le (JS104): [Shi Le] gathered Wang Yang, Kui An, Zhi Xiong, Ji Bao, Wu Yu, Liu Ying, Tao Bao, Lu Ming, and others, forming a group of eight riders who became notorious bandits. Later, Guo Ao, Liu Zheng, Liu Bao, Zhang Yipu, Huyan Mo, Guo Heilue, Zhang Yue, Kong Tun, Zhao Lu, and Zhi Quliu and others joined them, forming a group known as the "Eighteen Riders."
[4] Now Xingtai, Hebei.
[5] Zuyu, Gu, Essential Records of History and Geography (ʷҪ)
[6] Commandary capital Guangping, now east of Jize, Hebei.
[7] Records of Shi Le, JS104
[8] Biography of Emperor Wu of Wei, SGZ with annotations from WS
[9] According to Chuxue Ji citing Jin Story.
[10] Records of Shi Le, JS104
[11] Ibid.
[12] Annals of Jin
[13] Records of Shi Le, JS104
[14] Ibid.
[15] Pei Xian was Pei Kais son and served as Minister of Education and Grand Tutor.
[16] Lu Chen was Lu Yus grandson and served as Palace Attendant and Director of the Palace Library.
[17] Shi Pu was Shi Baos great-grandson and served as Minister of Education.
[18] Fu Chang was Fu Zhis son and served as Grand General and Right Inspector of the Cavalry.
[19] Xun Chuo was Xun Maos great-grandson and served as a staff officer under Shi Le.
[20] Cui Yue was Cui Lins great-grandson and served as Left Chief Clerk of the Minister of Education.
[21] Cui Yu was Cui Dans grandson and served as a high-ranking official in Shi Zhao.
[22] Zheng Lue served as Palace Attendant in Shi Zhao.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Insight and Judgment, A New Account of Tales of the World
[26] Records of Shi Le, JS104
[i] In Records of Shi Jilong (JS107):
Longxiang Generals, including Sun Fudu, Liu Zhu, and others formed a group of three thousand Jie warriors who worshipped the barbarian Heaven and intended to eliminate Min and others.
The same account can be found in Vol. 120 Taiping Yulan, citing the The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms: Records of Later Zhao. It is worth noting that during the Northern Dynasties, the religion of Zoroastrianism was referred to as the Hu Tian (Barbarian Heaven) or Hu Tian Shen (Barbarian Heaven God), while in the Tang Dynasty, it was known as Xian Jiao (Zoroastrianism) or the Fire Worship Religion.
[ii] ZZTJ, 2nd year of Jianxing (314 CE) during the reign of Emperor Min of Jin:
[Liu] Kun [...] submitted a memorial stating, "Of the eight provinces in the northeast, [Shi] Le has extinguished seven. I am the only one remaining who was appointed by the previous dynasty (Western Jin). Le is stationed in Xiangguo, separated from me only by the [Taihang] Mountains. His forces move swiftly, causing fear and panic in our cities and castles."
Hu Sansheng''s commentary on this passage states, "Le entered Ye and killed Duke [Sima] Teng of Eastern Yan. He raided Xindu and killed the Inspector of Jizhou, Wang Bin. He launched an attack on Juancheng and killed the Inspector of Yanzhou, Yuan Fu. He besieged Xincai and killed the Inspector of Yuzhou, Prince [Sima] Que of Xincai. He launched a surprise attack on Mengcheng and captured the Commander of Qingzhou, Gou Xi. He captured Shangbai and beheaded the Inspector of Qingzhou, Li Yun. He attacked Xindu and killed the Inspector of Jizhou, Wang Xiang. He attacked Dingling and killed the Inspector of Yanzhou, Tian Hui. He launched a surprise attack on Youzhou and captured Wang Jun. By eliminating Li Yun, Tian Hui, and Wang Jun, who were all appointed by the imperial court, he has extinguished seven."
[iii] In Annals of Emperor Xiao Min (JS05):
In the 5th year of Jianxing, during the autumn in 7th month, a severe drought struck the provinces of Si, Ji, Qing, and Yong. At the same time, locusts infested these four provinces. It was during this period that Shi Le relentlessly seized the crops of the common people, earning him the nickname of "Barbarian Locust" among the people.
The Tyrannical Rule of Shi Hu
Shi Hu''s ascent to power came under the shadow of his uncle, Shi Le, the founder of Later Zhao. The familial connection between Shi Hu and Shi Le ran deep, with their ancestors, Zhouhezhu and Beixie, possibly being brothers. Shi Hu''s own father, Koumi, met a mysterious fate, either meeting an untimely demise or being exiled and never returning. As a result, Shi Hu was raised under the care of Shi Le''s father, Zhouhezhu, which led to speculation that he may have been Shi Le''s cousin. These early years were marked by separation and adversity. Shi Le was kidnapped and sold to Shandong, while his mother, Lady Wang, and Shi Hu remained in Shangdang, Shanxi. It was not until the Jin general, Liu Kun, sought to forge alliances with Shi Le that Lady Wang and the young Shi Hu were finally reunited with Shi Le. Their reunion took place when Shi Hu was just 17 years old, marking the beginning of his own journey towards power and tyranny.
Shi Hu, notorious for his cruelty and restless nature, possessed remarkable skill and bravery on the battlefield, often achieving notable military triumphs. When Shi Le declared himself the Grand Chanyu and King of Zhao, he bestowed upon Shi Hu the position of his chief assistant, effectively making him the commander-in-chief of the imperial guards and the de facto regent for the Grand Chanyu. This granted Shi Hu immense power, as he governed the affairs of the diverse nomadic tribes from his stronghold at Ye City. However, tensions arose when Shi Le chose to relocate the capital to Ye City. He appointed his son, Shi Hong (ʯ), as the governor of Ye City and tasked the General of Valiant Cavalry, Wang Yang, with overseeing the six nomadic tribes, while recalling Shi Hu to Xiangguo. This decision left Shi Hu feeling discontented.
When Shi Le declared himself emperor, he bestowed the title of Crown Prince upon Shi Hong (ʯ), while his younger brother, Shi Hong (ʯ), received the prestigious position of Grand Chanyu. Shi Hu, however, was given the roles of Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat and Grand Commandant, along with the title of Prince of Zhongshan. Despite these high-ranking positions, Shi Hu harbored deep dissatisfaction. He confided in his son, Shi Sui, expressing his grievances, "I am the one who built the magnificent Zhao empire. The Grand Chanyu''s trust was truly in me, yet he gave the title to the yellow-lipped child of a maid. The thought of it keeps me awake at night and affects my appetite. There is no need to leave any descendants for his majesty after his passing. Whenever I think of this, I cannot sleep nor eat well. There is no need to leave any descendent for his majesty after his death."[1] This incident sheds light on Shi Hu''s ambitious nature and the tensions that existed within the empire even during Shi Le''s reign.
In the 7th Month of 333, Shi Le''s reign came to an end as illness claimed his life. His eldest son, Shi Hong (ʯ), was crowned emperor, but it was Shi Hu who held the real authority. Declaring himself Prime Minister, King of Wei, and the Grand Chanyu, Shi Hu seized control of the court. Amidst this power struggle, a plot brewed to overthrow Shi Hu, masterminded by Lady Liu[2] and Shi Kan.[3] However, their scheme ultimately proved futile as Shi Hu swiftly and ruthlessly eliminated both conspirators.
In response to the uprising, Prince Shi Sheng of Hedong and Shi Lang, stationed in Guanzhong and Luoyang respectively, took up arms against Shi Hu but tragically met their demise on the battlefield. Undeterred, Shi Hu seized the opportunity and in the following year, in the 11th month, he deposed Shi Hong and proclaimed himself as the Regent Heavenly King of Zhao. Shi Hu didn''t waste any time consolidating his power, swiftly eliminating his rivals. Shi Hong (ʯ), his younger brother Shi Hong (ʯ), their half-brother Shi Hui, and Lady Cheng, Shi Hong''s mother, all fell victim to his ruthless ambition. Shi Hu then set his sights on establishing his own dynasty. In 335, he relocated the capital to Ye City, and by 337, he confidently declared himself the Heavenly King of Great Zhao. Finally, in 349, Shi Hu declared himself the Emperor of Zhao, solidifying his rule during the turbulent period of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
During the era of the Great Migration, the power of minority tribes in the Central Plains region hinged on several crucial factors. Territory size, control over households, military strength, combat prowess, and the collection of rent and taxes all played a part. Take, for instance, the Shi Zhao regime. Faced with a lack of military forces and labor, they resorted to large-scale plundering of the common people to compensate. A particularly ruthless tactic employed by the Shi Zhao regime was the forceful resettlement of millions[i] of Han Chinese and minority ethnic groups. These displaced individuals were relocated to key political and military centers, such as Xiangguo, Ye City, and the provinces of Si[4] and Ji,[5] transforming them into strategic strongholds for the regime''s capital.
However, resistance against the Shi Zhao regime''s plunder often resulted in a display of extreme brutality. Shi Le, known for his ruthless tactics, was surpassed in savagery by Shi Hu. Their viciousness was exemplified during the attack on Qingzhou,[6] where Shi Hu was sent by Shi Le. Following the surrender of Guanggu, Shi Hu unleashed a merciless massacre, claiming the lives of thirty thousand soldiers. Even though numerous civilians remained in the city, Shi Hu contemplated exterminating them all. In an act of compassion, Liu Zheng, the Inspector of Qingzhou appointed by Shi Le, bravely confronted Shi Hu, stating, Your uncle sent me to Qingzhou to govern the people. If you were to kill every single person, I would no longer have a position. I would have to go back with you. Reluctantly, Shi Hu acceded to Liu Zheng''s appeal and issued an order sparing the lives of 700 men and women. These fortunate individuals were placed under Liu Zheng''s command to remain in Guanggu.[ii]
Shi Hu''s reign was marked by an unprecedented burden on the people, with widespread military conscription and forced labor. This weight became particularly evident during Shi Hu''s planned attack on Murong Huang in Liaoxi. To amass a formidable army, he issued a decree mandating that exempt families in several provinces, including Si, Ji, Qing, Xu, You, Bing, and Yong, must send three out of every five able-bodied men, or two out of every four. Families without exemptions were expected to contribute all able-bodied men to the army. As a result of these levies, an astonishing number of over 500,000 men were assembled in the former military camps of Ye City.[7]
Shi Hu''s reign saw the extravagant display of power through the construction of opulent palaces and grand temples. In Ye City, a staggering number of over forty temples and pavilions were erected, while Chang''an and Luoyang became home to magnificent palaces. The scale of this endeavor required the labor of more than 400,000 workers. Meanwhile, Shi Hu focused on reinforcing his military might by preparing the southern army in Henan, Bing, Shuo, and Qin provinces. Simultaneously, provinces like Qing, Ji, and You mobilized a significant portion of their able-bodied men, resulting in a staggering 500,000 individuals dedicated to the production of armor in these regions.
The pursuit of personal gain by officials and nobles wreaked havoc on the population, leaving approximately seventy percent of households grappling with unemployment. Tragedy struck during ambitious construction projects, claiming a heavy toll. Take for instance the ill-fated boatmen, a staggering 17,000 of whom perished at sea or succumbed to the savage beasts lurking in the mountainsa loss equivalent to one-third of their entire community. And let us not forget the 16,000 men torn from their homes in Yong, Luo, Qin, and Bing to toil away in the construction of Chang''an''s Wei Yang Palace. To make matters worse, 260,000 individuals from different provinces were mobilized to renovate Luoyang''s grand palaces. Meanwhile, a daunting task awaited 160,000 laborers from nearby counties, accompanied by an army of 100,000 carts, as they embarked on the treacherous mission of transporting mud to construct the sprawling Hualin Garden and the mighty Great Wall, stretching across vast expanses spanning dozens of li. But alas, fate had other plans, and a raging storm descended upon them, resulting in the tragic demise of tens of thousands.[8]If you come across this story on Amazon, be aware that it has been stolen from Royal Road. Please report it.
Shi Hu, driven by his ambition to conquer Eastern Jin, issued a decree for the conscription of soldiers. The process was brutal, demanding that for every soldier, five individuals were obligated to provide one cart, two oxen, fifteen hu of rice, and ten pieces of silk. Failure to meet these requirements resulted in death sentences. The desperation of the impoverished populace led them to sell their own children to meet the military''s demands. Despite these extreme measures, the requirements remained unmet, forcing some to resort to begging on the roads. The harrowing sight of accumulating corpses became tragically commonplace, yet the demand for recruits continued to go unfulfilled.[9]
In his relentless pursuit of power, Shi Hu resorted to the heinous act of forcibly taking over 30,000 young girls, aged between thirteen and twenty, into his harem. Not stopping there, local governments, eager to please the tyrant, forcefully seized more than 9,000 married women who were deemed beautiful. This gave rise to the distressing saying, "One hundred thousand women fill the palace through abduction."[10] The consequences were devastating, as the already dwindling population of the Central Plains further declined, and the orderly functioning of production was disrupted.
"The burdens of forced labor were overwhelming, the military campaigns relentless," observed historians at that time. "To make matters worse, a prolonged drought drove grain prices to unprecedented heights, with a jin of gold equivalent to 2 dou of rice, plunging the people into dire straits." Desperation and despair gripped the regions between the Hai, Dai, He, and Ji rivers, where any hope for peace seemed nonexistent. Chaos and rebellion ran rampant between Jing, Chu, Xu, and Yang, leaving no corner untouched by the flames of unrest.[11]
Amidst dire circumstances, the people struggled to survive, their very existence hanging by a thread. Fueled by festering tensions and long-standing conflicts, the brewing storm of upheaval seemed inevitable, its form yet to be determined. In the year 337, a blaze of rebellion ignited in the Nanshan Mountains of Duxian, Guanzhong[12], under the leadership of a bold and enigmatic figure Hou Ziguang, who dared to proclaim himself as the "Crown Prince of the Buddha." The ranks of the uprising swelled, with multitudes flocking to its banner. Similarly, in 342, another fiery eruption erupted in Beiqiu, Hebei[13], spearheaded by Li Hong, drawing thousands of households into its fold. Although both rebellions were short-lived and ultimately quashed, they served as resounding declarations of the Han Chinese people''s unwavering defiance against the economic exploitation and political oppression enforced by Shi Hu''s regime.
[1] Records of Shi Jilong, JS106
[2] Shi Le''s wife.
[3] Shi Kan was one of Shi Le''s adopted sons. He was a Han Chinese originally surnamed Tian.
[4] With its capital at Ye City.
[5] With its capital at Xindu, present-day Jizhou, Hebei.
[6] With its capital at Guanggu, present-day 8 li northwest of Qingzhou, Shandong.
[7] Records of Shi Jilong, JS107
[8] Ibid.
[9] Biography of the Jie barbarian Shi Le, WS102
[10] Records of Shi Jilong, JS107
[11] Ibid.
[12] Present-day southeast of Xi''an, Shaanxi.
[13] Present-day southeast of Gaotang, Shandong.
[i] In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Lu Ming attacked Ninghei in Chiping, and they surrendered. Afterward, Lu Ming also defeated Dong Yan and Suanzao before returning. He relocated over 20,000 surrendered households to Xiangguo.
[...] [Shi Le] relocated over 30,000 households of the Wuhuan, Zhan Guang, Liu Duo, and other tribes from Pingyuan to Xiangguo.
[...] Zhi Xiong and Lu Ming attacked Ninghei in Dongwuyang and captured it. [...] They relocated over 10,000 of its people to Xiangguo.
[...] After [Liu] Cong''s death, [...] Jin Zhun killed [Cong''s son] Can in Pingyang. [...] [Shi] Le then attacked Jin Zhun in the small city of Pingyang, and the Grand Intendant Zhou Zhi and others led 6,000 mixed households to surrender to Le. Over 100,000 Ba chiefs, as well as various Qiang and Jie tribes, surrendered. Shi Le relocated them to various counties in Sizhou.
[...] Shi Sheng attacked Liu Yaos subject Yin Ping, the Administrator of Henan, in Xin''an, and beheaded him. He captured over ten forts and seized more than 5,000 households as spoils of war, which they brought back.
In ZZTJ, during the 3rd year of Xianhe era of Jin:
The Later Zhao general, Shi Cong, [...] captured over 20,000 households from Shouchun and brought them back.
In Records of Liu Yao (JS103):
Shanggui (after Liu Yao was captured by Shi Le''s general, Shi Kan, Liu Yao''s remaining forces retreated west to defend Qinzhou, with Shanggui as its capital) collapsed, and Jilong [...] relocated over 9,000 people from their bureaucratic establishments, military officers, refugees from the eastern region, as well as prominent families from the Qin and Yong regions to Xiangguo.
In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Jilong captured Shanggui [...] Le relocated 150,000 tribes of the Di and Qiang to Sizhou and Jizhou.
[...] [Shi] Sheng [...] relocated over 5,000 households of ethnic groups from Qinzhou to Yongzhou.
[...] Jilong [...] relocated over 100,000 households of both Han Chinese and nomadic people from Yongzhou and Qinzhou to the eastern region of the Passes (Guandong).
[...] He relocated over 30,000 households from Qinzhou to Qingzhou and Bingzhou.
In Records of Shi Jilong (JS106):
Suotou Yuju and his 30,000 of his men surrendered to Jilong [...] Their forces were dispersed among the six provinces of Ji and Qing.
[...] Jilong attacked Duan Liao [...] and then relocated over 20,000 households to the provinces of Yong, Si, Yan, and Yu.
[...] He raided the northern border [of Eastern Jin] in Jing and Yang, capturing 70,000 households before returning.
[...] He relocated over 10,000 households from Liaoxi, Beiping, and Yuyang to the provinces of Yan, Yu, Yong, and Luo.
[...] Wang Zhuo captured Wujie [...] and relocated over 7,000 households to Yongzhou.
[ii] In Vol. 120 TPYL, it cites the Records of Later Zhao from The Spring and Autumn of the Sixteen Kingdoms:
Shi Hu was cruel and ruthless, showing no regard for justice. When capturing cities and forts, he would massacre both men and women, sparing few.
In Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Cao Yi surrendered and was sent to Xiangguo, but Le killed him and massacred his multitude of thirty thousand. Jilong intended to kill all of Cao Yi''s followers, but Liu Zheng, the Inspector of Qingzhou, said, You leave Zheng behind to govern the people. If there is no one left, who do I govern? If so, Zheng will go back! So Jilong reluctantly allowed seven hundred men and women to stay with Zheng and guard Guanggu.
Liang Du’s Uprising & the Decline of Later Zhao
Shi Hu''s choice to appoint his son Shi Sui as the crown prince had disastrous consequences for Later Zhao. Sui''s character was marred by a disturbing obsession with beautiful concubines, which he took to gruesome lengths. He ordered the beheading of his concubines and displayed their severed heads to his guests. In a shocking turn of events, Sui even conspired to assassinate his own father. Thankfully, Shi Hu uncovered his son''s nefarious intentions, leading to the execution not only of Sui but also his wife and 26 of his children. They were all laid to rest together in a single coffin, a grim testament to the depths of Sui''s cruelty.
With the demise of Sui, Shi Hu turned to his other son, Shi Xuan, as the new crown prince. However, Xuan''s ascent to power was not without its own share of vicious plots. Xuan''s brother, Shi Tao, enjoyed a favored position in their father''s court, which filled Xuan with envy and resentment. Determined to eliminate both his brother and his father, Xuan ordered for Tao''s assassination. However, his plan was uncovered before it could be carried out, and Shi Hu swiftly had Xuan executed, putting an end to his treacherous ambitions.
The power struggle within the ruling Shi family led to a dramatic shift in the Eastern Palace Guard, a force of over 100,000 soldiers forcibly conscripted from the common people to protect the crown princes palace. In an act of banishment, they were sent to the distant region of Liangzhou. Departing from Ye City and heading northwest, around 10,000 of these soldiers made their way to Yongcheng. [1] In the 3rd Month of 349, they staged an impromptu uprising against Shi Zhao. Led by the influential gaoli[2] figure, Liang Du, they declared him as the Great General tasked with liberating the east for Jin, effectively instigating a rebellion against the ruling powers.Stolen content warning: this content belongs on Royal Road. Report any occurrences.
Liang Du''s cause reverberated across the Guanzhong region, drawing people of diverse ethnic backgrounds to join his ranks. When they finally reached Chang''an, their numbers had swelled to an impressive 100,000. Stationed at Chang''an himself, Shi Bao, a son of Shi Hu, found himself confined within the safety of the city walls after a crushing defeat in battle. Undeterred, the rebel forces pressed on, marching eastward and triumphing over 100,000 government soldiers in Xin''an. Their resounding victory in Luoyang shook the very foundations of the Shi Zhao regime.
In a desperate bid to secure his own position, Shi Hu resorted to enlisting the military forces of two tribal nobles, Yao Yizhong from the Qiang tribe and Fu Hong from the Di tribe, to quash the rebellion. Although the uprising was eventually suppressed, the Di and Qiang armed groups emerged from the conflict with newfound power and influence. This newfound strength posed a direct threat to the stability of the Shi Zhao regime.
During the Liang Du rebellion, Ma Xu of Shiping[3] defied in response the oppressive forces at Lushi Gugu. Sensing the threat, Shi Hu tasked Shi Bao with crushing the uprising. It ended in a brutal aftermath - Ma Xu executed, and approximately 3,000 families massacred. While the Liang Du rebellion may have failed, its impact unsettled the Shi Zhao regime, ultimately leading to its downfall.
[1] Now Fengxiang, Shaanxi.
[2] Shi Xuan selected tall and strong individuals known as gaoli to guard the Eastern Palace.
[3] Now located fifteen li northwest of Xianyang City, Shaanxi.
Ran Min’s Campaign against the Hu and Jie Peoples
Ran Min, a native of Neihuang, [1] was born to the renowned warrior Ran Zhan. As the Western Jin Dynasty teetered on the brink of collapse, the resistance against the oppressive rule of the barbarian tribes in the Central Plains gained momentum through the Begging-for-Living Army, known as the qihuojun. [i] Among its ranks emerged a formidable group led by the indomitable Chen Wu, revered for their unparalleled strength and unwavering commitment. Throughout his life, Chen Wu valiantly defended the Central Plains against the relentless onslaughts of the Xiongnu and Jie tribes. Even in his final moments, he urged his loyal subordinates to remain resolute in their refusal to yield to the Hu. It was under the guidance of the mighty Chen Wu that Ran Zhan was raised, forged by the fiery spirit of resistance.
At just twelve years old, Zhan''s life took a dramatic turn when he was captured by Shi Le. Recognizing the young boy''s potential, Shi Le made the fateful decision to have Zhan adopted by Shi Hu, bestowing upon him the surname "Shi." This marked the beginning of Ran Min''s transformation into the adopted grandson of Shi Hu. With remarkable speed, Ran Min emerged as a force to be reckoned with, renowned for his unparalleled bravery and military genius. Within Shi Hu''s faction, he quickly established himself as one of the most skilled and capable military leaders, commanding respect and admiration from all who witnessed his feats.
Shi Hu''s reign came to an end in the 4th Month of 349, as illness and despair consumed him. His death threw his sons into a fierce power struggle, while the ministers turned against one another. In the midst of this turmoil, General Li Nong, fearing for his own safety, sought refuge in Guangzong,[2] a renowned stronghold of the Begging-for-Living Army in the Central Plains. Recognizing the urgent need to unite against the oppressive rule of Shi Zhao, the qihuojun pledged their loyalty to Li Nong and joined forces with him, retreating to Shangbai. This unlikely alliance marked the beginning of a steadfast friendship between Li Nong and the qihuojun.
In the midst of the power struggle among the Shi brothers,[3] Ran Min seized the opportunity to assert his authority. Stationed in Ye City, he found support from Li Nong, who held the influential position of Grand Marshal. With this alliance, Ran Min swiftly consolidated his power. In 351, under his formidable leadership, the remaining forces of the Later Zhao, led by Shi Zhi, faced a decisive defeat. With this victory, the 32-year reign of the Later Zhao dynasty came to a definitive end.
The divisive governance policy of the Shi Zhao regime exacerbated tensions between the Hu and Han populations, leading to widespread chaos and plunder. For thirty long years, the Hu settlers engaged in a relentless campaign of pillaging, disregarding the suffering inflicted upon the Han and other communities. The Shi Zhao government chose to ignore these abhorrent acts, further deepening the grievances of the oppressed. However, this period of turmoil and injustice would soon reach a critical turning point, forever altering the course of history.
To consolidate his power, Ran Min understood the importance of garnering the support of the Han people. To achieve this, he took decisive action against the Hu and Jie peoples. With the gates of Ye City thrown wide open, Ran Min directly addressed the inhabitants, presenting them with a choice: Those who are loyal to the government should stay, and those who are disloyal may leave. As a result, a flood of Hu people streamed out of the city, leading to chaos and congestion at the gates. Simultaneously, Han individuals within a hundred li voluntarily streamed into the city, demonstrating their allegiance. Witnessing this blatant display of disloyalty, Ran Min made a fateful and chilling decision. In a ruthless and indiscriminate act, he ordered the execution of over 200,000 Hu individuals, sparing no consideration for their social status, gender, or age.[ii]
Ran Min''s initial campaign against the Hu and Jie people was indeed a response to the prevailing circumstances. However, his subsequent decision to mercilessly slaughter every Hu individual was a drastic and regressive policy fueled by ethnic revenge. This approach not only failed to address the underlying tensions among the diverse ethnic groups, but it also exacerbated them further.
Riding the wave of his triumph against the Hu and Jie people, Ran Min capitalized on his newfound support from the Han population. Seizing the opportunity, he proclaimed himself emperor and christened his realm as Wei, with Ye City serving as its capital. Seeking to establish diplomatic ties and enlist cooperation, Ran Min dispatched envoys to the Eastern Jin government in Jiankang, conveying his message directly, The Hu rebels on the Central Plain have been subdued. Should you desire to unite forces and quell their resistance, you are welcome to send troops to aid our cause.[4] However, the rulers and officials of Eastern Jin opted for a calculated silence, as Ran Min had already declared himself emperor, rendering any reply superfluous.
After establishing the Ran Wei regime, Ran Min implemented political measures aimed at purging and stabilizing the nine social classes, appointing officials based on talent, and promoting those who excelled in Confucian studies. However, his actions mirrored the feudal rule of the Wei and Jin dynasties rather than embracing a new approach. By prioritizing the stability of the aristocracy and promoting individuals from the landlord class, Ran Min neglected the broader interests of the masses. He failed to tap into the potential of the people and refused to rely on them for support.
Take, for instance, the case of Li Nong, a crucial ally in the fight against the Jie people. However, Ran Min decided to eliminate him and cut ties with the qihuojun, a group that had close connections with Li Nong. This choice had far-reaching implications. In addition, there were influential figures in Guanzhong, boasting over 30 formidable forts and a population exceeding 50,000, who were eager to throw their support behind the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Regrettably, Ran Min was unable to seize this golden opportunity and collaborate with them.[iii]
The feudal landlords and gentry of the Ran Wei regime lacked the backbone to oppose the rule of the ethnic minority rulers. Instead, they shamelessly pursued their own interests, contributing to the regime''s downfall. Political opportunism ran rampant, as they prioritized their wealth and influence over the well-being of the empire.
Under the Shi Zhao regime, the Central Plains region suffered greatly, especially during the later years of Shi Hu''s rule. Agricultural production in the area plummeted, and famine became a frequent visitor to the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The situation was dire, to say the least.
In an effort to alleviate the suffering of the impoverished, Ran Min, upon establishing his new regime, distributed all the stored grain in government warehouses to those in need. However, any hope of long-term relief was dashed by the resurgence of the remnants of the Shi Zhao forces. Shi Zhi, Shi Hu''s son, proclaimed himself emperor in Xiangguo and joined forces with the Di, Qiang, and Xianbei tribes to launch a relentless attack on Ran Min.
These incessant wars diverted Ran Min''s attention and resources, hindering any attempts to restore agricultural production in a timely manner. The challenges were formidable, and Ran Min found himself fighting on multiple fronts, both in military battles and against the forces of starvation.
Ran Min''s initial triumph over Shi Zhi was short-lived, as the relentless warfare continued to ravage the land. Fu Jin, the Di nobleman Fu Hongs son, seized control over the Guanzhong region and expanded his influence westward. Meanwhile, the Murong clan of the Xianbei tribe launched an invasion from the Liaoxi, gradually encroaching on the territories of Zhao and Wei. Their army grew strong, and they launched a full-scale attack on Ran Min''s regime. Despite the gravity of the situation, the Eastern Jin Dynasty government remained indifferent, showing no interest in aiding. Finally, in 352, the forces led by Murong Jun dealt the decisive blow, wiping out the Ran Wei regime and putting an end to its short-lived existence of only three years.
The Yongjia period (307-312) was a time of immense upheaval and destruction, leaving the once-thriving region in ruins and its people scattered and displaced. The aftermath of this period was a desolate landscape, devoid of any signs of human habitation. This period witnessed a significant influx of various ethnic minority groups from the border regions into the heartland of the Central Plains.
For instance, in 318, Shi Le gained the allegiance of over 100,000 tribes from the Di, Qiang, and Hu-Jie backgrounds, who then found their way to various counties in Hebei. Not to be outdone, Liu Yao transported more than 200,000 Ba-Di tribes to Chang''an in 320. However, in 329, Shi Le dealt a crushing blow to Liu Yao''s regime, resulting in the resettlement of 15,000 tribes from the Di and Qiang ethnic groups in Hebei. The year 332 witnessed Shi Hu''s relocation of over 100,000 households from Qin, Yong, and the Di and Qiang tribes to the Guandong region. In this upheaval, Fu Hong, the leader of the Di tribe, took on the role of superintendent for the refugees and settled in Fangtou.[5] Concurrently, Yao Yizhong, leader of the Qiang tribe, served as the Grand Superintendent of the Western Qiang, leading tens of thousands of tribes to settle in Fentou in Qinghe.[6] Consequently, the lower reaches of the Yellow River became densely populated with the Di and Qiang tribes.
After the Shi Zhao regime fell, Ran Min embarked on a mission to eradicate the influence of diverse ethnic groups in the Zhao and Wei regions. Historical records vividly recount the exodus of "hundreds of thousands from Qing, Yong, You, and Jingzhou, and millions from tribes such as the Di, Qiang, and Hu, as they returned to their ancestral lands." Unfortunately, this mass migration plunged the region into chaos and catastrophe. The roads became breeding grounds for violence, looting, and wanton destruction. The once flourishing population was decimated by the twin scourges of famine and disease, with an appalling death toll reaching nearly eighty percent. The plight of the Central Plains was dire, causing farming activities to grind to a halt and leaving the populace in disarray.[7]
In the midst of this tumultuous period, Fu Hong, the leader of the Di tribe, seized the opportunity to lead his tribes in a strategic retreat from Fangtou. Accompanied by a multitude of refugees who had sought haven in the Shandong and Hebei regions, their ranks swelled to over 100,000. Following Fu Hong''s demise, his son Fu Jin bravely steered the tribes into the Guanzhong region, where they established the Fu Qin regime.
Similarly, Yao Xiang, the formidable leader of the Qiang tribe and son of Yao Yizhong, rallied his tribes consisting of 60,000 households to embark on a westward migration. Settling in Xingcheng[8] with the intent of gaining control over the Guanzhong region, they clashed with the Fu Qin regime in Sanyuan[9] but suffered a crushing defeat, resulting in the death of Yao Xiang. Undeterred, his younger brother, Yao Chang, took charge and skillfully orchestrated the surrender of the Qiang tribes to the Fu clan. In a dramatic turn of events, upon the failure of Fu Jin, Yao Chang seized the opportunity and eliminated him, establishing the Yao Qin regime in the Guanzhong region.
The Ran Wei regime, predominantly consisting of Han people in the lower region of the Yellow River, faced encirclement and destruction by various ethnic minority regimes. The Han population, confronted with the prospects of prolonged oppression, humiliation, and constant fear of massacre, resolved to seek refuge in the territories controlled by the Han-ruled Eastern Jin. In a momentous wave of migration, they embarked on mass movements across the Yangtze River.
Around 200,000 Han people from Hebei crossed the Yellow River, appealing for military aid from the Eastern Jin government. However, the empire showed little concern for their welfare and failed to provide the necessary support and coordination. Consequently, the ruling ethnic minority regime launched an attack on these vulnerable individuals, leading to their mass demise.[iv]
[1] Now northwest of Neihuang, Henan.
[2] Now east of Wei County, Hebei.
[3] Shi Shi, Shi Hus youngest son, was killed by his brother Shi Zun after ruling for a mere 33 days; Shi Zun, ruling for 183 days, was killed by his brother Shi Jian; Shi Jian, ruling for 103 days, was killed by Ran Min.
[4] Records of Ran Min, JS107
[5] Now southwest of Qimen Crossing, Jinxian County, Henan.You might be reading a stolen copy. Visit Royal Road for the authentic version.
[6] Now northeast of Zaoqiang, Hebei.
[7] Records of Ran Min, JS107
[8] Now southwest of Huangling, Shaanxi.
[9] Now Sanyuan, Shaanxi.
[i] ZZTJ, in the 1st year of Emperor Hui of Jin''s Guangxi reign (306 CE):
In the 12th month [...] Bingzhou was suffering from famine, and the area had been repeatedly plundered by the Hu bandits. The various counties and commanderies were unable to protect themselves. The military commanders Tian Zhen, his brother Lan, Ren Zhi, Qi Ji, Li Yun, Bo Sheng, and others, along with over ten thousand officials and civilians, all followed Sima Teng to beg for grains in Ji Province, forming a group known as qihuo or "Begging-for-Living" army.
In the Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Le attacked Shi Xian, the Inspector of Youzhou, at Leling, resulting in his death. The qihuo army, led by Tian Yan, consisting of a force of fifty thousand, went to rescue Xian, but Shi Le defeated them in battle.
ZZTJ, in the 1st year of Emperor Huai of Jin''s Yongjia reign (307 CE):
In the 5th month [...] [Ji] Sang captured Ye City. [Sima] Teng [...] was killed by Li Feng, a general under Sang. In the 12th month, on the day of Wuyin, the qihuo army, led by Tian Zhen, Tian Lan, Bo Sheng, and others, rose up in rebellion to avenge Prince Teng of Xincai and beheaded Ji Sang at Leling.
In the Biography of Prince Yue of Donghai (JS59):
Wang Mi entered Xu [...] [Yue] summoned Tian Zhen and five others, but Tian Zhen refused to comply with the order. Yue sent Liu Wang as the commanding general to deal with Tian Zhen. Initially, when Duke Teng of Dongying held the city of Ye, he brought over ten thousand troops, including Tian Zhen, his brother Lan, Ren Zhi, Qi Ji, Li Yun, Bo Sheng, and others from Bingzhou to Ye. They were sent to beg for grain in Ji Province, forming a group known as the qihuo (Begging-for-Living) army. After Teng''s defeat, Tian Zhen and others ambushed and defeated Ji Sang at Chiqiao. Yue appointed Tian Zhen as the Administrator of Ji County and Lan as the Administrator of Julu. Tian Zhen requested to be appointed as the Administrator of Wei County, but Yue refused, which angered Tian Zhen and led to his refusal to come when summoned. Once Liu Wang crossed the river, Tian Zhen retreated. Li Yun and Bo Sheng beheaded Tian Lan and led their troops to surrender. Tian Zhen, Ren Zhi, and Qi Ji abandoned their forces and fled to Shangdang.
In the Records of Shi Le (JS104):
Le attacked qihuos She Ting and Tian Yan at Zhongqiu, and both were killed.
In the Annals of Emperor Huai (JS05):
In the 11th month of the 3rd year of Emperor Huai''s Yongjia reign, qihuos generals Li Yun, Bo Sheng, and others led their forces to rescue the capital. [Liu] Cong retreated, and Li Yun and the others also defeated Wang Mi at Xinji.
In the Biography of Prince Yue of Donghai (JS59):
[Yue] left his consort Lady Pei, his heir Prince and Zhenjun General Pi, and Longxiang General Li Yun, together with He Lun and others, to guard the capital [...] He led forty thousand armored soldiers and stationed them east in Xiang [...] In the 5th year of the Yongjia era, Yue passed away in Xiang [...] Upon hearing of Yue''s death, He Lun and Li Yun secretly concealed the news of his passing. They escorted Lady Pei and Prince Pi out of the capital, along with a multitude of people who joined the group along the way, resulting in widespread looting and pillaging. When they reached Weicang, they were defeated by [Shi] Le. Both Prince Pi and the thirty-six royal members were killed by the enemy. Li Yun killed his wife and children and fled to Guangzong.
ZZTJ, in the 5th year of Emperor Huai''s Yongjia reign:
Autumn, in the 7th month, Wang Jun [...] issued an imperial edict [...] appointing Tian Hui as the Inspector of Yanzhou and Li Yun as the Inspector of Qingzhou.
In the 1st year of Jianxing (313 CE):
In summer, the 4th month [...] Shi Le attacked Li Yun at Shangbai (located in present-day Wei County, Hebei) and beheaded him. Wang Jun then reappointed Bo Sheng as the Inspector of Qingzhou [...] In the 5th month [...] Shi Le sent Kong Chang to attack Dingling, resulting in the death of Tian Hui. Bo Sheng led his troops to surrender to Shi Le. (In the Records of Shi Le, it is mentioned that "Bo Sheng of Wuwan captured Liu Ji, the Administrator of Bohai Commandery, and led five thousand households to surrender to Shi Le." It seems that while Bo Sheng was the leader of the qihuo army, he was originally from the Wuwan tribe.)
In the Records of Shi Le (JS104):
During that time, [Shi] Le and Chen Wu engaged in conflict at Peng Pass [...] Shi Le led his army to attack Chen Wu at Feize. Chen Wus Marshal, Li Tou of Shangdang, approached Shi Le and said, "Sir [...] you should bring peace to the lands within the Four Seas [...] Instead of dealing with those who vie for control of the realm, you have turned your forces against us, the exiles. Our local supporters will eventually rally behind us, so why force them into a corner?" Shi Le pondered over this and, in the morning court, ordered a retreat.
Annals of Jin from the stone chamber in Dunhuang:
In the 2nd year of Taixing (319 CE), in the 4th month of summer, on the day Wuyin, General Zhenwu and Interior Minister of Chenliu, Chen Wu, passed away. Before his death, Chen Wu admonished his followers not to serve the Hu. Chen Wu was the leader of the qihuo army [...] At that time, he held control over Junyi, commanding a force of over five thousand soldiers who were brave and skilled in combat. After Chen Wu''s death, his son Chen Chite was still young. The Supreme Commander Feng Long, Li Tou, and others collectively supported Chen Wu''s uncle, Chen Chuan, to assist and govern Chen Chite. Chuan then proclaimed himself as General of Ning and Shuo and Interior Minister of Chenliu. Originally a minor official in Daling County, Chen Chuan lacked the popular support due to his harsh methods. During the campaign against Fan Ya, the troops of Zu Ti were conscripted from various villages and forts. Chen Chuan sent Li Tou to assist Zu Ti with troops, and Zu Ti treated him warmly [...] Li Tou deeply respected Zu Ti [...] However, Chen Chuan became angry and killed Li Tou, launching an attack on his supporters. The remaining followers fled to Zu Ti [...] Chen Chuan [...] then defected by surrendering Junyi [...] In the 5th month, the General Who Pacifies the West launched an expedition against Chen Chuan [...] Shi Hu crossed the River to provide reinforcement [...] They plundered various commanderies in Yuzhou and relocated Chuan to Xiangguo, while leaving Tao Bao stationed at Chuitai.
In Biography of Zu Ti (JS62):
Zhang Ping''s remaining forces then joined forces with Fan Ya''s troops to attack Zu Ti again. There was a certain Chen Chuan, who was the castle leader of Pengbei and called himself the General of Ning and Shuo and the Prefect of Chenliu. Ti sent emissary to ask for his help. Chuan then sent his general Li Tou with his men to help Zu Ti. With the reinforcement, Zu Ti captured Qiao town. [...] Li Tou fought bravely against Fan Ya and distinguished himself in battle. At that time, Zu Ti obtained a magnificent steed, but Tou was hesitant to ask for it. However, Zu Ti understood his desire and gave it to him. Li Tou was deeply grateful for Zu Ti''s kindness and often said, "If only I could serve under this man as my lord, I would die without regrets." When Chuan heard of this, he became angry and had Li Tou killed. [...] Chuan was further angered and sent General Wei Shuo to raid various counties in Yuzhou, capturing many men, women, carriages, and horses. [...] Chuan [...] joined forces with Shi Le. [...] Shi Jilong relocated Chen Chuan and his followers back to Xiangguo (according to the Records of Shi Le, it states "he relocated over five thousand households of Chen Chuan''s followers to Guangzong").
In the Records of Shi Jilong (JS107):
Zhang Chai and Zhang Ju conspired to assassinate Li Nong [...] Fearing for his safety, Li Nong fled to Guangzong with a hundred horsemen, leading several tens of thousands of households of qihuo to sought refuge at Shangbai.
In the Biography of Huan Yi & his grandson Shimin (JS74):
During the time (when the ethnic Dingling, Zhai Liao, held Liyang in 386 CE), qihuos Huang Huai proclaimed himself as the Inspector of Bingzhou. He, along with Zhai Liao, launched an attack on Changshe, with a force of several thousand people. Shimin [...] fought against Huang Huai and beheaded him.
In the Biography of Wang Zhen''e (SS45):
His younger brother Kang [...] found that the frontier defenses were not being properly maintained [...] and sought refuge in Jinyong City [...] At that time, there was a man named Shao Ping who led his followers and over a thousand households of the qihuo from Bingzhou to establish a camp south of the city, welcoming the fugitive Sima Wenrong as their leader.
The Annotations on the Qu River (SJZ22) quotes the Customs of Chenliu:
Within the county, there is the Shikuang city of Cangjie with the Blowing Platform of the Immortal Beings on top, and the Mu Marsh to the north [...] Prince of Liang expanded it to become the Blowing Platform [...] Today, the platform stands alone to the right of the Mu Marsh. It is about a hundred steps in size [...] During the chaos and upheaval of the Jin dynasty, the qihuo settled there and removed the original foundation, resulting in the formation of two levels [...] It is thus commonly known as the Qihuo Platform."
In the Records of Murong De (JS127):
Fu Deng''s younger brother, Guang, led his followers to surrender to Murong De. He was appointed as the Champion General and settled at the Qihuo Fortress.
In the Biography of Yuan Huzhi (SS50):
[Yuan Huzhi] followed Zhang Yong in an attack against Gaoao [...] [Xiao] Sihua ordered him to cross the river and garrison at the Qihuo Fortress to defend against the enemy forces.
In the Chronicles of the World in Peace (̫ƽ):
There is a city called Qihuo in Hejian County, Yingzhou.
The footnote references Zhou Yiliang''s article Research on the qihuo. Based on the aforementioned series of materials, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The qihuo was an armed group of refugees who followed Sima Teng when he withdrew from Bingzhou.
During their exile and battles, the qihuo army gradually grew and strengthened. They played a significant role in fighting against the minority rulers who entered the Central Plains when the Western Jin dynasty was on the verge of collapse. After the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, the qihuo army became a core force in resisting the rule of minority rulers in the Central Plains.
The fact that leaders of the qihuo army, such as Chen Wu, urged their followers not to serve Hu rulers even in their dying moments, demonstrates their admirable spirit of perseverance in the fight.
Due to the policy of division adopted by the rulers of the Western and Eastern Jin dynasties towards the qihuo army, leaders such as Tian Lan were killed by Bo Sheng and Li Yun, while Chen Chuan killed Li Tou to submit to Shi Le. On one hand, this reveals that the leaders within the qihuo army also engaged in infighting, which is a common weakness among refugee groups. On the other hand, it highlights the divisive consequences of the Western and Eastern Jin dynasties, weakening the resistance against barbarian rule and hindering the development of the anti-Hu struggle.
After being forcibly resettled by the Shi Zhao regime in Guangzong, Shangbai, and other areas, the qihuo army managed to preserve its strength and bide its time for three decades. Eventually, they collaborated with Ran Min and Li Nong to completely annihilate the remnants of the Shi Zhao regime.
Even after the failure of Ran Min, the qihuo army retained their prestigious title in the Central Plains and continued their struggle. In the year 419 CE, when the Northern Expedition led by Liu Yu of Eastern Jin failed to yield results and Han ethnic power once again retreated from the Yellow River region, the qihuo army still sought to support Sima clan member Sima Wenrong in establishing a Han ethnic regime in the north. By this time, more than 110 years had passed since the qihuo army withdrew from Bingzhou in 306 CE.
[ii] In Records of Shi Jilong (JS107):
[Ran Min] issued an edict that anyone, regardless of their ethnicity, who dared to take up arms or a cane in the city would be executed. There were countless instances of barbarians who broke through city walls, climbed over gates, and so on. [...] His edict declared, Those who are loyal to the government should stay, and those who are disloyal may leave. The city gates were ordered to be opened. Thus, Zhao [Han-Chinese] people from neighboring districts and villages flooded into the city, and numerous Hu and Jie people left and even filled the gates. Shi Min realized that the barbarians could not be trusted, so he ordered every Zhao person to execute every barbarian they could find. For each Hu person killed, those who were civil officials could advance three ranks, while all military officials would be promoted to the rank of a gate guard. Within a single day, tens of thousands of heads were cut off. Shi Min led the Zhao people personally to kill the Hu and Jie people. Regardless of their status, gender, age, or wealth, they were all beheaded. The death toll was more than 200,000, and the corpses were left outside the city walls, where they were eaten by wild dogs and wolves. Those who lived in different regions followed the orders of Shi Min. Approximately half of the people with long noses and beards were mistakenly killed.
ZZTJ, In the 6th year of Emperor Mu of Jin''s Yonghe reign:
[Ma] Qiu, following Ran Min''s order [to eliminate Hu and Jie people], executed over a thousand Hu people from Wang Lang''s group.
[iii] In Records of Shi Jilong (JS107):
Shi Bao, at the time stationed in Chang''an, planned to lead the forces of Guanzhong in an attack on Ye City [...] The powerful nobles of Yongzhou, discerning the futility of the endeavor, sent envoys to inform Sima Xun, the Jin Inspector of Liangzhou. Upon receiving the message, Xun led his forces to support them and set up camp at Xuangou, about two hundred li away from Chang''an. He ordered Liu Huan, an official in charge of affairs, to attack the Jinzhou Commandery Administrator, Liu Jili. They beheaded him. Many of the influential elites in the Three Assistant Provinces killed their local officials and leaders, amassing a force of over fifty thousand to support Xun.
[iv] ZZTJ, In the 5th year of Emperor Mu of Jin''s Yonghe reign:
The General Who Pacifies the North, Chu Pou, submitted a memorial requesting to launch a campaign against the state of Zhao [...] In the 7th month of autumn, Chu Pou was appointed as the Supreme Commander for Expeditions and appointed to oversee military affairs in the provinces of Xu, Yan, Qing, Yang, and Yu. Leading an army of thirty thousand soldiers, Chu Pou headed straight for Pengcheng, and on a daily basis, thousands of people from the northern regions surrendered and pledged allegiance to Jin [...] Over five hundred families in Lu commandery rose up in arms and joined forces with Jin [...] In the 8th month, Chu Pou withdrew and stationed his troops in Guangling [...] At that time, there was great chaos in Hebei, with over two hundred thousand refugees attempting to cross the river and seek refuge. However, by the time Chu Pou returned, his influence and power were no longer present, and they were unable to extricate themselves. They perished en masse.
II. Swords and Supremacy: the Yan-Qin Rivalry & Fu Jiāns Northern Hegemony
The Rise of Former Yan and Murong Clan
Former Yans Murong clan was a branch of the Xianbei tribe. During the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Xianbei leader Tanshihuai partitioned his territory into three distinct regions: Central, Eastern, and Western. The Eastern region encompassed more than twenty settlements, the Central over ten, and the Western over twenty. The Yuwens belonged to the Eastern region, the Murongs to the Central, and the Tuobas to the Western.
The Murong clan, known as the "White Xianbei," stood out due to their fair complexion. Originally residing in the Liaoxi region under the Cao Wei dynasty, they later migrated to the northern part of Liaodong during the Wei-Jin transition. Led by their chieftain, Murong Hui, the Murongs regularly conducted border raids in the Liaoxi region. However, in 294, they made a significant change by settling in the city of Daji[1] and embracing a more settled and agricultural lifestyle. During the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty from 307 to 312, Murong Hui declared himself the Xianbei Grand Chanyu.
Upon his father''s death, Huang wasted no time in proclaiming himself as the King of Yan in 337. Soon after, in 343, Shi Hu of Later Zhao, with a formidable army of 200,000 soldiers, launched an attack on Yan. Yet, to everyone''s surprise, the Yan forces emerged triumphant in a decisive battle, obliterating the Shi Zhao troops and leaving over 80,000 enemy soldiers dead. This resounding victory bolstered the confidence of the Murong clan, prompting them to relocate their capital to Longcheng[2] and solidify their power. With their military prowess on full display, the Murong clan went on to conquer the Xianbei Yuwen tribe, while also achieving significant victories over the Buyeo and Goguryeo. These conquests firmly established the Murong clan as the dominant force in the Liaoxi region, paving the way for future ambitious campaigns led by Murong Jun as they sought to expand their dominion into the Central Plains.
During the twilight of the Western Jin Dynasty, Liu Yao seized power in Luoyang and Chang''an. This pivotal moment forced the aristocratic families of the Central Plains into a precarious situation. Faced with difficult choices, some families opted to migrate south of the Yangtze River, while others sought safety in Liangzhou, protected by the Zhang clan. Meanwhile, aristocratic families from Shandong and Hebei found solace in Youzhou, finding refuge under the influential local landlord, Wang Jun.[3] However, Wang Jun''s reign was tainted by corruption, and the encroaching threat of Shi Le''s invasion loomed ever closer. Consequently, the noble families who had initially aligned themselves with Wang Jun gradually shifted their allegiance, seeking sanctuary in the Liaoxi region under the watchful eye of Cui Bi, the appointed Inspector of Pingzhou. When the Murong clan took control of the Liaoxi region, these aristocratic families pledged their loyalty to them as well.
Among these families were Pei Yi and Pei Kai from Hedong, Yang Dan and Yang Yu from Youbeiping, You Sui from Guangping, Feng Chou, Feng Yi, Feng Yu, and Gao Zhan from Bohai, Song Gai and Liu Zan from Pingyuan, Miu Kai from Lanling, Kong Zuan from Luguo, Song Shi from Xihe, Huangfu Ji and Huangfu Zhen from Anding, and many others. These families not only brought their own clans but also led their fellow villagers, followers, and tenants when they migrated. Gao Zhan, for example, led several thousand families in tandem with his uncle,[4] when they pledged allegiance to the Murong clan.
Following their allegiance to the Murong clan, these aristocratic families shared their expertise in governing the Han people with their new rulers. They stressed the importance of treating the Han with respect and acknowledged the Eastern Jin Dynasty as their suzerain.[i] Murong Hui, in a show of loyalty to the Jin dynasty, took decisive action when envoys from Shi Le of Later Zhao arrived in Liaoxi. He detained them and sent them to Jiangnan, solidifying his commitment to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. These political strategies had a profound impact, attracting a significant number of Han people from the Central Plains who sought security. Consequently, these displaced individuals migrated to the Liao River basin under the protection of the Murong clan.
To effectively administer the growing influx of refugees and solidify their authority, the Murong clan took measures to establish local governance in the Liao River basin in 310. These governing bodies, known as qiaojun (Commandery of Migrants) and qiaoxian (County of Migrants), were tasked with overseeing and managing the refugee population. Under this system, the people from Jizhou became residents of Jiyang Commandery, while those from Yuzhou became residents of Chengzhou Commandery. Similarly, those from Qingzhou became residents of Yingqiu Commandery, and those from Bingzhou became residents of Tangguo Commandery.[5] As an incentive for the Han ethnic refugees to resettle, they were granted certain privileges, such as exemption from labor obligations. This generous policy further encouraged the migration to these newly established territories, resulting in a staggering increase in the refugee population, surpassing the original local inhabitants by more than tenfold.[ii]
After Murong Huang assumed the throne as the King of Yan, the Murong clan tightened their grip on Liaoxi. This consolidation led to changes in refugee policies. In 347, an edict was issued that abolished the refugee governments of Chengzhou, Jiyang, Yingqiu, and other commanderies. Instead, new counties were established to accommodate specific native populations: Xingji County for Bohai natives, Ningji County for Hejian natives, Xingping County for Guangping and Wei Commandery natives, Yuli County for Donglai and Beihai natives and Wu County for Wu natives.[6] This new system marked the end of preferential treatment for refugees, gradually increasing the burdens on this population.
The Han people who migrated to the Liaoxi region brought with them various production techniques, which played a decisive role in the improvement of agricultural production in Liaoxi. Recognizing the limited land and growing population, Murong Huang made the decision to open up previously reserved land such as gardens and pastures for cultivation by the refugees. He even lent them oxen for farming, implementing a system of exploitation where 80% go to the state, and 20% go to private ownership for those without their own oxen, and 70% go to the state, and 30% go to private ownership for those who had their own oxen but cultivated official land.
However, Feng Yu, the Records Officer and Army Adjutant under Huang, voiced his concerns, stating, Although the Wei and Jin dynasties had imposed heavy burdens on the people, it did not exceed 70-80%. For those who owned official oxen and cultivated official land, 60% should be given to the state, with 40% remaining for the people. In the case of those who possessed private oxen but cultivated official land, the division should be equal between the state and the individuals. This arrangement would satisfy the people, and everyone would be content. However, I must emphasize that this is still not the path of a wise ruler, let alone an improvement upon it.
Murong Huang heeded Feng Yu''s counsel and promptly issued a decree, proclaiming, All gardens and pastures should be abolished and redistributed among the landless. each impoverished individual devoid of resources shall be granted a single head of cattle. Furthermore, those desiring to employ state-owned cattle for cultivating official lands may do so in accordance with the regulations established during the Wei and Jin dynasties.[7] Under this arrangement, the division of yields adhered to the 6-4 or 5-5 split, mirroring the principles of the military farming system.[iii]
At the same time, Murong Huang achieved a series of impressive conquests. First, he vanquished the Duan clan, seizing 5,000 households in the process. His forces then emerged victorious against Goguryeo, capturing a staggering 50,000 men and women. The Yuwen tribe was next to fall, with over 50,000 families being resettled in Changli[8]. Further conquests against Buyeo resulted in the capture of over 50,000 people. Further conquests against Buyeo saw the capture of another 50,000 individuals. In his campaign against Later Zhao, Murong Huang triumphantly captured over 30,000 households in the regions of You and Ji. These conquered populations, together with the Xianbei people under Murong''s control, experienced a gradual shift from a nomadic existence to an agricultural-based economy. This transition played a pivotal role in the growth of the Murong regime in Liaoxi, fostering a sizeable population, supporting a formidable military, and facilitating the development of a relatively advanced culture.The story has been stolen; if detected on Amazon, report the violation.
In 348, after Huang''s death, his son Jun took control. He inherited a formidable army of over 200,000 troops. The agricultural advancements in the Liaoxi region further fortified his military might. Seizing the opportunity created by the power vacuum after Shi Hus death in 352, Jun launched a triumphant campaign against Ran Min, emerging victorious and proclaiming himself the Emperor of Yan. The capital was initially established in Ji City[9], but it was later relocated to Ye. This state was known as the Former Yan.
Former Yan''s territory spanned a vast expanse, stretching from the southern Ru and Ying rivers, to the eastern Qing and Qi regions, and reaching as far west as to the Xia and Min mountains. Its northern reach extended to the Yunzhong region.[10] This extensive domain covered present-day regions including Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, and Shandong. It effectively shared control over the Yellow River basin with the Fu Qin regimes in Guanzhong.
Before the rise of the Murong clan, they publicly declared their allegiance to the Eastern Jin dynasty. The Jin regime, in turn, trusted their loyalty but remained suspicious of Ran Min, who had overthrown the Shi Zhao regime. The Jin regime opted not to intervene as Jun defeated Ran Min. Following his victory, Murong Jun declared himself emperor. Seeking to establish communication, the Jin regime sent envoys to Murong Jun, who firmly asserted his authority, declaring, Tell your emperor that I have taken up the imperial title with the support of the Chinese people. I already reign as an emperor.[11]
In his quest for conquest, Murong Jun implemented a policy of conscription and household inspections. His decree mandated that one able-bodied man remain in each household, while the rest were conscripted into the army. The goal was to amass a formidable force of 1.5 million soldiers, with the ultimate aim of subduing the Eastern Jin and Former Qin dynasties to achieve the unification of China. However, this ambitious plan was derailed by his untimely death in 360. His young son, Murong Wei, who was a mere eleven years old, ascended to the throne. To ensure stability, Murong Jun''s brother, Prince Murong Ke of Taiyuan, stepped in as regent, with the assistance of Prince Murong Ping Shangyong[12] in the administration of state affairs. Consequently, from 360 until his death in 367, Murong Ke served as regent, maintaining a relatively stable political climate within the Former Yan dynasty.
Upon seizing power, Murong Ke found himself at odds with his Grand Tutor, Muyu Gen. Muyu Gen''s proposal to relocate the capital to Longcheng sparked unrest and instability among the people. Exploiting this situation, Muyu Gen cunningly convinced Murong Ke to overthrow the young Murong Wei and declare himself emperor. Adding fuel to the fire, he falsely accused Murong Ke and his brother Murong Ping of treason, manipulating Empress Dowager Kezuhun and Murong Wei into believing his deceit. In a shocking turn of events, Muyu Gen even urged the imperial guards to execute Murong Ke and Murong Ping. Left with no alternative, Murong Ke was compelled to order the execution of Muyu Gen and his followers.
Murong Ke, though wielding significant political power, exhibited a strong inclination to seek counsel and guidance from his uncle, Ping, in all matters. He avoided making isolated decisions. Furthermore, he treated his subordinates with humility, sought advice from wise individuals, and appointed them according to their abilities, ensuring that no one exceeded their rightful position. If any government official or courtier made a mistake, he did not shame them publicly but instead reassigned them appropriately, without causing a loss of dignity. Such an approach allowed individuals to reflect upon their actions, while also effectively deterred them from transgressing his principles.[13]
Murong Ke, renowned for his political acumen, also displayed remarkable military command skills. In 365, he successfully recaptured Luoyang, which had briefly fallen back into the hands of the Eastern Jin dynasty. As a general, Murong Ke''s leadership style was characterized by a reliance on trust and benevolence rather than strict discipline or coercion. He prioritized overall strategic considerations and avoided issuing excessive and burdensome orders, ensuring the well-being and contentment of every soldier. Despite the relaxed appearance of his camps during peacetime, they remained highly vigilant and impervious to enemy approaches. Consequently, he never suffered defeat.[14]
[1] Present-day southwestern Yixian, Liaoning.
[2] Present-day Chaoyang, Liaoning.
[3] Wang Jun was a member of the Taiyuan Wang clan, son of Wang Shen.
[4] Records of Murong Hui & Biography of Gao Zhan, JS108
[5] Ibid.
[6] Records of Murong Huang, JS109
[7] Ibid.
[8] Now Chaoyang, Liaoning.
[9] Present-day Beijing.
[10] Zuyu, Gu, Essential Records of History and Geography (dushi fangyu jiyaoʷҪ)
[11] Records of Murong Jun, JS110
[12] Murong Ping was Murong Huis son and Murong Huang''s younger brother.
[13] ZZTJ, 4th Year of Emperor Mu of Jin
[14] ZZTJ, 3rd Year of Emperor Ai of Jin
[i] In the Records of Murong Hui (JS108):
General Lu Chang, the General who Conquests Barbarians, said to Hui, "Now, the two capitals have fallen [...] Langya (referring to Sima Rui) has assumed control in the east of the Yangtze River, which is, in fact, crucial for the lives of the people. Your Excellency, you dominate the seas and frontiers, yet some factions still cling to their military might without embracing the civilized path, as they do not recognize the authority of the king [...] It is proper to establish communication with Langya, encourage the acceptance of the grand order, and then proclaim the imperial decree to attack those who are guilty. Who would dare to refuse?" Murong agreed to this suggestion and dispatched his chief secretary Wang Ji to cross the sea and offer his support [...] [Emperor Yuan] conferred upon [Murong Hui] the titles of General and Chanyu.
[ii] In the Records of Murong Huang (JS109):
The people from the Nine Provinces, coming from distant lands, carried their belongings for thousands of li. They returned to their homeland like children seeking the embrace of their loving father. The number of refugees exceeded ten times the original population, and the population was dense while the land was limited. As a result, four out of every ten people had no land."
[iii] In the Records of Murong Huang (JS109):
[Huang] provided cattle for the poor families to cultivate land in Wanzhong. The state would collect 80% of the produce, while 20% would go to private ownership. For those who had cattle but no land, they could also cultivate land in the gardens. In this case, the state would collect 70%, and 30% would go to private ownership. The Records Officer under Huang, Feng Yu, objected and advised, "[...] the number of refugees exceeds ten times the original population, and the population is dense while the land is limited. Therefore, four out of every ten people have no land [...] Your Highness should expand the previous achievements [...] It is advisable to abolish the gardens and provide opportunities for the refugees. For those who lack assets upon arrival, grant them cattle. Once they become subjects of Your Highness, how could the cattle be lost? Moreover, even during the declining years of Wei and Jin, the burdens on the people were not as severe as 70-80%. For those who held official cattle and cultivated official land, 60% should to the state, and 40% to the people. For those who had private cattle but cultivated official land, the division was shared equally with the state. The people should be content with this arrangement, and everyone pleased. Yet, I still say that this is not the way of a wise king, let alone an improvement upon it [...]"
Upon reviewing Feng Yu''s objection, Murong Huang stated, "[...] after considering the advice from Records Officer Feng, I, too, have concerns [...] The gardens and pastures should be abolished entirely and given to those who have no land. Those improvised with no assets and cannot sustain themselves shall be granted one cattle each. If there are those who have the ability and wish to take official cattle and cultivate official land, they may follow the old laws of Wei and Jin. The construction of canals and irrigation systems should be carried out by responsible officials who will make the most of the natural waterways and lands."